Impact of Motivation on Job Satisfaction Essay

The term ‘motivation’ is derived from the word ‘motive’ which influences the behavior of individuals. Motives are the expression of needs of a human being. Motivation is a process of getting the needs of the people realized to induce them to work for the accomplishment of organizational objectives. Motivation is a behavioral psychological concept. It seeks to understand why people behave the way they do. The intention is to produce goal-oriented behavior. It aims at influencing good result and arises from within the individual. The inner feeling balances the perception of an individual and satisfaction of his needs that influence the direction, volume, behavior limitation and efforts of an individual. Hence motivation is an inducement of inner feeling of an individual. It cannot be forced upon from the outside. According to Steers and Porter (1991), there are two ways to view motivation. The traditional way is to define motivation as a process of directing (stimulating) people to action in order to accomplish a desired goal. Based on this definition, motivation is the function supervisors perform to get their employees to achieve goals and objectives. The second view looks at individual motivation. Such motivation represents an unsatisfied need that creates a state of tension (disequilibrium), causing the individual to move in a goal-directed pattern towards need-satisfaction and equilibrium. The goal of the behavior is to reduce tension by achieving a goal that will satisfy that need. Both approaches to the study of motivation are motivation. Harmer (2001) defines motivation as some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something. This significantly refers to an individual’s desire and willingness to take action towards the accomplishment of a given task. Invariably, people’s behavior at work is controlled by their intrinsic motives that characterize the work as well as the working environment. The manager’s job becomes one of identifying the right chord to play to influence each group member to achieve the group goals. However, the study of motivation addresses the distinctiveness of each individual, for each individual has a number of motivators (Robert and Hunt, 1991). Armstrong(1998) considers motivation as ‘why people at work behave in the way they do in terms of their efforts and the direction they are taking and what the organization can do to encourage people to apply their efforts and abilities in ways that will further the achievement of the organization’s goals as well as satisfying their own needs. Cole (2002) relates this to human behavior and defines it as ‘a process in which people choose between alternative forms of behavior in order to achieve personal goals’. According to Spector (1997:2) job satisfaction is simply how people feel about their job. It is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs. As is generally assessed, is an attitudinal variable. In this context, job satisfaction can be considered as a global feeling about the job or as a related constellation of attitudes about various aspects or facets of the job. The management dilemma in many organizations in today’s fast paced technological environment is how managers can improve the motivation of employees, so that companies employ and retain a fulfilled work force that contributes optimally to organizational stakeholders. Essentially, the questions that must be answered by this study are: What makes some employees perform better than others? What makes some employees seem better satisfied in their jobs than others? In what ways can management improve the motivation of their employees? All organizations are concerned with what should be done to achieve sustained high levels of performance through people. This means that, there is the need to give close attention to how individuals can best be motivated either through such means as incentives, rewards, leadership and importantly the work they do and the organizational context within which they carry out that work. This is very important because according to Reece and Brandt (1996:234) they identified the importance of the emotional factor at work. Emotions play a critical role in the success of every organization, yet many people in key decision- making positions (leaders) with outstanding technical and financial skills fail to understand the important role emotions play in a work setting. In part, the problem can be traced to leadership training that emphasizes that doing business is a purely rational or logical process. These authors further emphasize that the cost of ignoring the emotional factor at work can be costly to companies in the form of lawsuits, resignation and death of valuable employees, etc. PROBLEM STATEMENT There are many and varied reasons why managers are continually under distress in many organizations. Resources both human and material as well as technology are but a few issues confronting managers daily. More importantly, the human aspect has questions that have perplexed and fascinated managers for a long time. These questions include: What makes some employees perform better than others? What makes some employees seem better satisfied in their jobs than others? How can we improve the motivation and overall job satisfaction of our employees? There are no easy answers to these questions, yet they plague managers in their day to day running of organizations. The reality is that the level of employee motivation affects their morale, performance and overall job satisfaction PROBLEM ANALYSIS DIAGRAM Employee Commitment Increases Profit Margins Effect of Motivation Increases Performance Job Satisfaction RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. To what extent does motivation lead to increases in job satisfaction? 2. To what extent does motivation lead to increases in performance? 3. Is there any relationship between increases in profit margins and job satisfaction? OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY GENERAL OBJECTIVES To establish the impact of motivation on job satisfaction and to propose alternative strategy or recommendation to enhance job satisfaction at the workplace. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES 1. To examine whether motivation leads to an increase job satisfaction. 2. To assess whether motivation leads to an increase in performance. 3. To investigate whether motivation is the factor to increases in profit margin. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The fundamental purpose of this research is to determine the main causes of satisfaction and dissatisfaction amongst a group of employees within the frame work of the Herzberg study. This research is important or beneficial because: 1. It will broaden management’s insight that motivation plays a key role in the overall job satisfaction of employees. 2. It will enable managers to understand the factors and processes that are internal and external to the individual employee in an organization that have an effect in his/her behavior and performance. 3. It will also assist managers to devise strategies that sustain a highly motivated workforce so that the end result is that all stakeholders are content with the performance of the enterprise. 4. By understanding motivational issues behind employees, managers can systematically develop strategies to deal with motivational problems. RESEARCH DESIGN As part of our data collection method, we intend using qualitative and quantitative techniques. The research design we are going to use will be based on the descriptive design. For a comprehensive insight into our methodology kindly see the third chapter. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study is divided into five chapters. The first chapter looks at the background of the study, objectives of the study, the research hypothesis and significance of the study. Chapter two reviews existing literature in the area of the study, while chapter three discusses the methodology applied in collecting and analyzing data. Methodology is followed by the processing and analysis of the data as well as the findings from the study. The final chapter covers conclusions, recommendation and references. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 INTRODUCTION Understanding the theory and application of motivation is important in managing human resources for organizational success. This is more critical today due to the ever changing business environment organizations find themselves or operate. The relationship between job satisfaction, motivation, and efficiency or productivity is very important in the business industry as well as in personal life. Long term research has found that the single greatest predictor of longevity is work satisfaction. Work is one third to one half of a persons’ lifetime, and if frustrated the mental and physical effects are very costly. Job characteristics including skill variety, task identity, and task significance lead to psychological conditions in which in turn leads to increased motivation, performance and job satisfaction. It is important to investigate this area in order to determine how much of an effect does overall job satisfaction, motivation and productivity has on each other. It is also important to research the relationship between motivation and job satisfactions because it can assist businesses in designing and manufacturing an environment to maximize productivity and efficiency while keeping their employees satisfied. Finally, it is significant to study motivation and job satisfaction because it can help people better understand what job will best suit them to be motivated and satisfied while making a difference in the productivity level. As part of the research into establishing a correlation between motivation and job satisfaction, this chapter seeks to capture the relevant literature and concepts of motivation and job satisfaction. 2. 2 MOTIVATION THEORIES The fundamental approaches to motivation are underpinned by motivation theory. The most influential theories are classified as: content theories and process theories. Content theory: It focuses on the content of motivation and the nature of needs. It states that motivation is essentially about taking action to satisfy needs, and identifies the main needs that influence behavior that is those specific things that actually motivates the individual at the work place. Process theory: In process theory, the emphasis is on the psychological processes or forces that affect people’s perceptions of their working environment and the ways in which they interpret and understand it. According to Guest (1992a) in Armstrong M, process theory provides a much more relevant approach to motivation than the theories of Maslow and Hertzberg, which, he suggests, have been shown by extensive research to be wrong. Process or cognitive theory can certainly be more useful to managers than needs theory because it provides more realistic guidance on motivation techniques. MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY The most famous need classification was formulated by Maslow (1954) in Armstrong M, a human relationist, argued that people are motivated to satisfy five need levels. Among these are: Physiological need, this talk about the basic needs of life which are need for oxygen, food, water, clothing, shelter and sex that present basic issues of survival and biological function. In organizations these needs are generally satisfied by adequate wages and work environment itself, which provides restrooms, adequate lighting, comfortable temperatures and ventilation. Safety, the need for protection against danger and the deprivation of physiological needs. Social, the need for love, affection and acceptance. A manager can help satisfy these needs by allowing social interaction and making employees feel like part of a team or work group. Esteem needs actually comprises two different sets of needs: the need for a positive self image and self respect and the need for recognition and respect from others. A manager can help address these needs by providing various extrinsic symbols of accomplishment; the manager can provide challenging job assignments and opportunities for the employees to feel a sense of accomplishment. Self-fulfillment (self- actualization), the need to develop potentialities and skills to become what one believes he is capable of becoming. The self actualization needs are perhaps the most difficult for a manager to address. In fact, it can be argued that these needs must be met entirely from within the individual. But a manager can help by promoting a culture wherein self- actualization is possible. For instance, a manager could give employees a chance to participate in decision making about their work and opportunity to learn new skills. Maslow (1954) in Armstrong M, suggests that the five needs categories constitute a hierarchy. An individual is motivated first and foremost to satisfy physiological needs. As long as they remain unsatisfied, the individual is motivated only to fulfill them. When satisfaction of physiological needs is achieved, they cease to act as primary motivational factors and the individual moves up with the hierarchy and become concerned with security needs. This process continues until the individual reaches the self actualization level. Maslow’s concept of the need hierarchy has a certain intuitive appeal and has been accepted by many managers. However, it has not been verified by empirical research and it has been criticized for its apparent rigidity. Different people may have different priorities and it is difficult to accept that people’s needs progress steadily up the hierarchy. Infact, Maslow himself expressed doubts about the validity of a strictly ordered hierarchy. Some research for example McClelland has found that, the five levels of needs are not always present and that the order of the levels is not always the same as postulated by Maslow. In addition people from different cultures are likely to have different needs categories and hierarchies. McClelland NEEDS THEORY. McClelland(1975) in Roberts,H. k. & Hunt identifies three needs that motivates managers and agrees with Maslow(1954) that needs motives are part of the personality, which he believes are triggered off by environmental factors. He further identifies these most important needs as: The need for achievement, The best known of the three, is the desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past. People with a high need achievement have the desire to assume personal responsibility, a tendency to set moderately difficult goals, a desire for specific and immediate feedback, and pre occupation with their tasks. David McClelland, the psychologist who first identified this need, argues that only about 10 percent of the US population has a high need for achievement. The need for Affiliation Affiliation is a desire for human companionship and acceptance. People with strong need for affiliation are likely to prefer (and perform better in) a job that entails a lot of social interaction and offer opportunities to make friends. The need for power The need for power is basically a concern for influencing people- to be strong and influential. They are likely to be happy in jobs that give them control over budget, people and decision making. OTHER MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES ADERFER ERG THEORY Aderfer (1972), in John M. Ivancevich describes a three level hierarchy, compared to the five levels proposed by Maslow. These include: 1. Existence Needs- this category is grounded in the survival or continued existence, of the person. As such, it would include many of the issues covered by the physiological and safety needs identified by Maslow. . Relatedness Needs- this category is based on the need for people to live and function in a social environment. It would embrace the need to be part of a group and belong to a valued organization. It incorporates many of the issues covered by the safety, belonging and esteem described by Maslow. 3. Growth Needs- this category is grounded in the need for people to develop their poten tial. As such it would cover the self-actualization and much of the esteem needs described by Maslow. HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR MODEL The two-factor model of satisfiers and dissatisfiers was developed by Herzberg et al (1957) in Armstrong M, following an investigation into the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of accountants and engineers. It was assumed that people have the capacity to report accurately the conditions that made them satisfied and dissatisfied with their jobs. Accordingly, the subjects were asked to tell their interviewers about the times during which they felt exceptionally good and exceptionally bad about their jobs and how long their feelings persisted. It was found that the accounts of ‘good’ periods most frequently concerned the content of the job, particularly achievement, recognition, advancement, autonomy and the work itself. On the other hand, accounts of ‘bad’ periods most frequently concerned the context of the job. Company policy and administration, supervision, salary and working conditions more frequently appeared in these accounts than in those told about ‘good’ periods. These categorized into two types of motivation as Intrinsic Motivation: the self- generated factors that influence people to behave in a particular way or to move in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility (feeling that the work is important and having control over one’s own resource) autonomy (freedom to act), scope to use and develop skills and abilities. Interesting and challenging work and opportunities for advancement. Extrinsic Motivation- what is done to or for people to motivate them? This includes: rewards such as increased pay, praise or promotions, punishment such as disciplinary action, withholding pay or criticism. Frederick Herzberg theory had close links with Maslow’s and believed in a two factor theory of motivation. He stressed that, certain factors could be introduced into a business that will directly motivate an employee to work harder (Motivators) included are achievement, recognition, responsibility and advancement. However, other factors called (Hygiene factors) de-motivate an employee. The most common hygiene factors, or dissatisfies include: company policy and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relationship and working condition. Hygiene factors are factors which â€Å"surround the job† rather than the job itself. Importantly, Herzberg viewed pay as a hygiene factor which is in direct contrast to Taylor who viewed pay and piece-rate in particular. Herzberg believed that business should motivate employees by adopting a democratic approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through certain methods. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are: Job Enlargement- workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting. Job Enrichment- the design of jobs so that they contain a greater number of motivators which involves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of achievement. Empowerment- means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over areas of their working life. For the purpose of this research, emphasis will be laid on Herzberg two-factor model. Though recognition is identified as a motivator by Herzberg, Miller (2002:15) mentions four common incentives (money, contests and competition, recognition including praise and rewards, and disciplinary action) thought to motivate others, but they discourage intrinsic motivation. She says the key to performance is to create an environment for intrinsic motivation, using four incentives (competency, empathy, autonomy and fulfillment). Green (2000:155) captures this issue well when he says employees are motivated by what they intrinsically believe is going to happen, not by what managers promise (extrinsic) will happen. Managers can motivate employees by setting in motion the conditions required for motivation namely, confidence, trust and satisfaction and creating an environment that reinforces those conditions. Pollock (2002:10) recognizes three of Hertzberg’s motivators as being crucial in motivating people. These are recognition, interesting work and responsibility. He says, over and above monetary rewards, what people crave is praise. They need assurance that their efforts are known, valued, and appreciated. Sometimes all it takes to satisfy this deep desire is a sincere well done†, preferably delivered in front of their peers. Making peoples work interesting means driving away bore doom because it’s a great de-motivator. Make their work meaningful and you will spur them to realize their own highest potential. Giving people additional responsibilities implies not only giving them extra work, but work that is important and requires a higher level of knowledge and skill. GOAL THEORY Goal theory as developed by Latham and Locke (1979), states that motivation and performance are higher when individual set specific goals, when goals are difficult but accepted and when there is feedback on performance. The implication of goal theory is that, goals set by management should be challenging enough but realistic. Participation in goal setting is important as a means of getting agreement to setting higher goals. People strive to achieve goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals guide people’s response and actions and also direct work behavior and performance which lead to certain consequences or feedback. The feedback should be complete, accurate and timely in order to provide a means of checking progress on goal attainment 2. 3 JOB SATISFACTION THEORY VIE THEORY This theory is derived from the expectancy theory of Vroom, by Porter and Lawler (1968)in Armstrong M. In addition to three basic components of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy, this model incorporates abilities and traits, role perceptions, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, and the perceived equity of the rewards. The model assumes that, for an effort to translate into a desired level of performance, the person must have the ability to perform well (abilities and traits), and he must understand the demands of his job (role clarity). The model acknowledges that people work for both extrinsic rewards, such as money and promotions, and intrinsic rewards, such as pride in ones work and a sense of accomplishment. The model assumes that the level of performance a person attains will affect the level of rewards he perceives to be equitable. Specifically, if a person expends a great amount of effort that culminates in high performance levels, he will perceive that he deserves a substantial reward. (Dipboye, Smith, and Howell, 1994:( 116-177). Job satisfaction is the met expectations or desires of a job. I t is a collective term of specific attitudes about work or job and it varies as a function of other non-work attitudes (age, health, etc. ). Genetic research suggests that 30% to 40% of job satisfaction is inherited. Job satisfaction and life satisfaction are interrelated and influence each other. A Gallup poll indicates that approximately 10% to 13% of workers are dissatisfied, while about 85% of workers are satisfied. Other surveys asking questions in a different manner suggests that more workers are dissatisfied. Job satisfaction varies with the type of occupation, for example, higher management means more satisfaction. Personal characteristics of workers also have an impact on job satisfaction. Job satisfaction increases age. Whites have greater job satisfaction than non-whites. The level of education is slightly negatively related to job satisfaction. If personal skills and abilities are not required by a job, job satisfaction decreases. When a person is wage may be the most important variable to job satisfaction. High job satisfaction is associated with low turnover and low absenteeism and with high commitment. Although the evidence is not conclusive, high job satisfaction is associated with high performance and prosocial behaviors. . 4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOTIVATION, JOB SATISFACTION AND MONEY The basic requirement for job satisfaction may include comparatively higher pay, an equitable payment system, real opportunities for promotion, considerate and participative management, a reasonable degree of social interaction at work, interesting and varied tasks and a high degree of autonomy: control o ver work pace and work methods. The degree of satisfaction obtained by individuals, however, depends largely upon their own needs and expectations, and the working environment. The level of job satisfaction is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors, the quality of supervision, social relationships with the work group and the degree to which individuals succeed or fail in their work. Purcell et al(2003)in Armstrong M, believe that discretionary behavior which helps the firm to be successful is most likely to happen when employees are well motivated and feel committed to the organization and when the job gives them high levels of satisfaction. Their research found that the key factors affecting job satisfaction were opportunities, job influence, teamwork and job challenge. 2. BENEFITS OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION. * Increases Productivity Skilled and motivated people work harder and better in improving productivity. Incentive programs promote productivity in a number of ways . Employees are often motivated for reaching targets or for good work done in general. These motivations vary but the main aim is to encourage employees to work towards company goals. With the promise of motivation and clearly defined targets, employees are more productive and motivated. * Reduce Absenteeism The bottom line with motivation programs comes down to the very simple fact that people like been rewarded for hard work and a job well done. The rewards are only part of the equation. Motivation schemes show employees the company cares and appreciates the work they are doing. If an employee feels appreciated and has clear targets that result in rewards then they are more likely to want to come to work. * Increased Company Morale Rewards, incentives and recognition make for a happy, harmonious working environment. Goal setting and targeting objectives helps with focus and purpose . Employee motivation programs offer all of these things and are highly conducive to company morale. Increases in company morale helps reduce absenteeism and overall company cost. Public Recognition. Investor in people status brings public recognition for real achievements measured against a rigorous national standard. Investing in people helps to attract the best job applicant. It may also provide a reason for customers to choose specific goods and services. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3. 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter explains how data was c ollected for the study. It also deals with the research tools used to gather the data, the method used or adopted in analyzing the data and the problems encountered during the process of data collection. The chapter distinctively discusses the following: * Sources of data * Research design * Population of the study * Sampling * Sampling procedures * Data collection techniques * Data analysis * Constraints The proposed methods adopted were structured towards the collection of data from primary and secondary sources. On the basis of the literature review, the existing acqiutance of the theme under discussion— definition, motivation, job satisfaction, motivation theories, job satisfaction theories thus its impact on employee job satisfaction fell under the following broad headings: * Definitions of motivation Job satisfaction * Motivation theories * Job satisfaction theory 3. 2 Data Sources The researchers used secondary and primary data to facilitate the data build up for the research. This was done through the use of questionnaires. The secondary sources of data collection included: * Textbooks of relevant importance to the research topic. * Published articles in Psychology and motivation journals 3. 3 Research Design The model used for this study was the descriptive research design. This design was chosen because it is on one of the best research designs which are deemed appropriate when a researcher attempts to describe some aspects of a population by selecting an unbiased sample of individuals who are asked to complete questionnaire. 3. 4 Population of the study The population of the study comprised of 50 employees of SSNIT. This population provided the researchers with all inclusive views from diverse perspectives on the effect of motivation on employee job satisfaction. 3. 5 Sample Size The sample size for the study was thirty (30) employees of the Social Security and National Insurance Trust (SSNIT). Due to responses of constraints the sample size was reduced to 20. 3. 6 Sampling procedure Because the researchers wanted to select their sample from a population which is diverse based on management hierarchy, we used stratified sampling to group our sample population into a strata based on management hierarchy at SSNIT. The population was grouped according to low level management, middle level management and top level management. After stratified sampling, we then use simple random sampling to select our target group of thirty(30) from the sample population of fifty(50). The reason was to give everybody an equal opportunity of being chosen or captured. 3. 7 Method of data collection A combination of primary and secondary data was used to acquire information. The secondary data was collected by going directly to some of the data sources. The primary data on the other hand was collected by the use of questionnaires. All the questionnaires were designed with both open ended and closed ended questions. 3. 8 Data collection All data was collected concurrently, that is both secondary and primary data were collected simultaneously. 3. 9 Data Analysis Various respondents provided series of data for the making of the research report, all data collected was coded and edited to eliminate all errors and information that did not fall within the objectives. The researchers then used the information provided by respondents and analyzed the information by the use of report, using tables, charts and so on. 3. 10 Constraints In carrying out the research, the researchers encountered some problems. Thus, the refusal of the organization to release certain important data needed for the project, especially, the historical data pertaining to human resource. The researchers could not get these data as they were deemed too confidential because of fear of competitors getting hold of them. This therefore imposed a limitation on the study. Another problem was time constraint and also inabilities to respond to the questionaires. Only twenty were responded to. Financial constraint was also a factor. CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4. 1 Introduction This chapter describes the responses to a series of questions designed to examine the impact of motivation on job satisfaction. The chapter begins with the findings about motivation and its impact on job satisfaction on SSNIT. The questionnaires administered were 50 employees through stratified sampling out of which 30 was picked based on simple random sampling. 4. 2 1. LENGTH OF SERVICE AT SSNIT TABLE 1. OPINIONS| NO. OF RESPONSE| PERCENTAGE (%)| 0-1 years| 4| 20| 2-4 years| 8| 40| 5-10 years| 5| 25| Above 10 years| 3| 15| Total| 20| 100| SOURCE OF DATA (FIELD DATA) DECEMBER 2010 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TABLE 1 The respondents length of service at SSNIT were sought to determine how long they have been working there. According to the table above, 40 % of respondents constituted those who fall within (2-4 years). That is, they have been employees for two to four years. Those who have been employees for five to ten years made up 25% which was the next highest (5-10 years). Also, 20% represented those who fell between (0-1) years. They have only served a year at the time the questionnaires were administered. Lastly, 15% of respondents were within the above ten years group. From the above, it can be observed that the organization (SSNIT) has a young and fresh workforce which constitutes the bulk or majority of their employees. . Think of a time at work when you felt especially bad about your job, an incident or incidents which had a long lasting effect on you, and which led to bad feelings. Describe the circumstances, and how your work was influenced by it or them. TABLE TWO. INCIDENTS THAT CAUSED DISSATISFACTION OPINIONS| NO. OF RESPONSE| PERCENTAGE (%)| COMPANY POLICY| 8| 40| OTHERS| 6| 30| WORK IT SELF| 3| 15| INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS| 3| 15| TOTAL| 20| 100| SOURCE OF DATA (FIELD DATA) DECEMBER 2010 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TABLE 2. INCIDENTS THAT CAUSED DISSATISFACTION COMPANY POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION (40%) The majority of cases (40%) in the sample mentioned this factor as a major cause of unhappiness at SSNIT. OTHERS (30%) This was mentioned as the second strongest factor that contributes to job dissatisfaction and was experienced by people who did not choose any of the stated factors. They responded to none of them. WORK ITSELF (15%) This contributed to job dissatisfaction in 15% of the cases and related to the content of the job. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS (15%) This also contributed to job dissatisfaction in 15% of the cases related alongside work itself. 4. 4 4. Which of the following gives you Job Satisfaction? TABLE THREE: CAUSES OF SATISFACTION OPINIONS| NO. OF RESPONSE| PERCENTAGE (%)| Work Achievement| 6| 30| Recognition| 4| 20| Work Itself| 2| 10| Promotion/Advancement| 3| 15| Salary| 3| 15| Others(please specify)| 2| 10| Total| 20| 100| SOURCE OF DATA (FIELD DATA) DECEMBER 2010 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TABLE 3. Regarding the issue of which motivating factor gave them job satisfaction, 30% of respondents felt work achievement gave them satisfaction according to the table. This means they value a sense of achievement for the accomplishment of some milestone set by the individual himself or supervisor. Also, 20% of respondents felt recognition was what gave them satisfaction. They felt issues like recognition for job well done, good idea, appreciation, positive feedback and simply a tap on the back to acknowledge them was most important to them. Those who chose the work itself constituted 10% as can be seen from the table above. The design of the work and the demands is enough to keep them satisfied. Advancement and salary equally had 15%. Some based their satisfaction on increments in salaries whiles others taught promotion or advancement was their main satisfiers. They all recorded 15% each as can be seen from the table. Lastly, others represented 10% and they simply did not agree with the above motivation factors or had a different set of opinion. Bateman (2004) views motivation as forces that energize, direct and sustain a person’s effort. He says that all behaviors except involuntary reflexes like eye blinks (which usually have little to do with management) are motivated. A highly motivated employee will work hard towards achieving performance goals. With adequate ability and understanding of the job, such an employee will be highly productive. An aspect of the definition implies that people have certain beliefs about which behaviors or actions will help them satisfy their needs. This belief may or may not be accurate but they help guide behavior. From the table above, you find out that if the organization (SSNIT) wants to know whether their employees are satisfied or not then they must pursue the motivating factor of work itself. That is they have to continually design the work and its demand to suit employees. 5. which of the following gives you job dissatisfaction TABLE FOUR: CAUSES OF JOB DISSATISFACTION OPINIONS| NO. OF RESPONSE| PERCENTAGE | Lack of Recognition| 9| 45| Company Policy| 3| 15| Low Salary| 5| 25| Technical Supervision| -| -| Work Itself| 3| 15| Others(please specify if any)| -| -| Total| 20| 100| SOURCE OF DATA (FIELD DATA) DECEMBER 2010 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TABLE 4 Respondents were also asked which of the above in table five gave them job dissatisfaction. In other words which of the above make them not fell satisfied about their work. Lack of recognition was the most important demotivator that caused dissatisfaction constituting 45% of respondents. They feel the contributions they make towards organizational accomplishment is not appreciated. They are not congratulated for good work done in the midst of their colleagues or their ideas accepted and appreciated. This was followed by 25% of respondents who felt low salary was a dissatisfier. Company policy and work itself represented 15% equally. The views were taken from a total of 20 respondents. From the above, it can be clearly seen that lack of recognition was the strongest dissatisfier. According to Herzberg (1959) this falls under extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards, punishment and recognition or praise. In this case the failure of management of SSNIT to recognize their contribution is a dissatisfier. CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 5. 0 Introduction Motivation is a major issue in every organization. Any organization that fails to motivate its employees usually faces the severe consequence of low morale. Motivation plays a significant role in the attainment of competitive advantage and job satisfaction in every organization. Findings from the analyzed data were related to the objectives of the research in this chapter. It concluded with a general summary, findings, summary of findings, conclusion and recommendation providing suggestions on how motivation is a tool to achieve job satisfaction in SSNIT. 5. 1 SUMMARY The findings from the empirical research have indicated that 30% of the respondents ranked work achievement as number one motivator for job satisfaction from a list of five factors. This contrasts with what earlier researchers adduced that total compensation and emotions were the real motivators. The reason for this could be mainly due to the fact that workers have a desire to accomplish a goal or task. People with a high need achievement have desire to assume personal responsibility, a tendency to set moderately difficult goals, a desire for specific and immediate feedback, and pre occupation with their tasks. There is the need for a motivation model that considers work achievement as a motivator to achieve job satisfaction. On the other hand, 45% of the respondents ranked lack of recognition as number one de-motivator for job dissatisfaction from a list of five. Workers want to be recognized and their contribution and ideas appreciated and also praised for a job well done. If this is absent, then it could pose significant consequences to job satisfaction. Management should ensure that workers contributions are recognized and appreciated so that they do not feel disheartened. 5. 2 CONCLUSION The conclusions are based on the gaps in the motivation theory, the assumptions on motivation and the motivation framework. The theories reviewed in this study have not eluded criticism. Indeed none of the theories were developed in Africa. Before they are acted upon therefore their relevance should be evaluated and integrated into the local organizational circumstances. Managers (supervisors) often assume that it is difficult to motivate people and that motivated workers perform better contributing to achieve organizational goals. This study has indicated that (work achievement) is a fundamental ingredient in the motivation recipe. The question of whether work achievement should be number one motivator to achieve job satisfaction has remained complex. Jobs that provide a sense of achievement and recognition may be satisfying to some individuals, as the survey results have indicated, because there is a sense of achievement when they accomplish goals set by themselves or management. However others may ot find it satisfying as compared to salary or company policy. Motivating workers is critical to the organizations success but it is an enigmatic concept. This study has not provided specific answers given the complexity and the multi-facetted nature of motivation. Instead job satisfaction guidelines have been developed and murky areas highlighted to tri gger an innovative approach towards managing job satisfaction and motivation issues. 5. 3 RECOMMENDATIONS The points discussed indicates that debates on whether or not work achievement is a motivator are not yet resolved. Infact this study will instead set the debate in motion. In the discussion work achievement was the number one satisfier contributing 30%. For work achievement to ensure job satisfaction, certain conditions must be met: According to Frederick Hertzberg, business should motivate employees by adopting a democratic approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through certain methods. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are: Job Enrichment-the design of jobs so that they contain a greater number of motivators which involves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of work achievement. The statistics of the responses given by the employees makes it significantly clear that motivation goes beyond work achievement to achieve job satisfaction. Many put significant premium on the work itself, recognition, advancement, salary, company policy among other needs. Managers must therefore make conscious efforts to understand the needs of employees at any point in time and meet them appropriately and not only rely on work achievement as the sole tool for job satisfaction. If the above conditions are fulfilled, then, work achievement can be used as a motivational tool for achieving job satisfaction and even competitive advantage. However, as already noted above some conditions are difficult to fulfill. On the otherhand,45% of respondents chose lack of recognition as the factor that gave them job dissatisfaction or dissatisfier. Dissatisfiers essentially describe the environment and serve primarily to prevent job dissatisfaction. This means that the workers at SSNIT feel their work is not appreciated or recognized. Workers want to be recognized whether a note or praise, for example a manager saying ‘good idea’, well done and was in the form of appreciation, positive feedback, positive compliments and admiration. The management of SSNIT should ensure that the contributions made by employees is recognized and appreciated and it will go a long way to achieve job satisfaction and competitive advantage. Skilled and motivated workforce can be a source of competitive advantage in today’s ever dynamic and turbulent business environment. 5. 4 TO FUTURE RESEARCHERS The findings in this research revealed a significant tradeoff between work achievement and other factors regarding those factors that gave them satisfaction. We recommend that subsequent research on this topic critically examines the rate of this tradeoff between work achievement and the other factors. And perhaps researchers may dare to exclude work achievement from the factors in subsequent studies in order to fairly examine the strengths of other factors against each other to achieve job satisfaction among employees.

Participating In Team Sports Helps to Develop Good Character

Participating in team sports helps to develop good character because sports involve team work, gaining of social experiences and helps relieve stress. Being on a sport team creates the opportunity to gain meaning full insight into one's self. This is the time to gauge reactions and learn appropriate responses to difficult situations. Athletes learn not to become defeated by a loss, but to dig in and believe they can win even when the score board says otherwise. It teaches each individual to stay balanced, the up and down of sport teaches athletes to stay on the axis and avoid circular emotions.When one takes a good look at the variety of benefits available to those who participate competitively in sports, one cannot help but see how comprehensive they are in the development of a well-rounded individual. I know of nowhere else that a person has the opportunity to gain so much, both on the inside and out, all from one place. Today, a significant number of people agree that, engaging in team sports help to develop good character, they have so many evidences to prove that. They frankly believe that, sports involve team work, gaining of social experiences and aid to relieve stress.Team work is very versatile character idiosyncrasy. It can be used in many parts of life, from sports to the workplace. Even team sport also encourages people to work with others, as they try to reach for the same goal. Team sports help to build character because they teach people discipline, how to work in a group and how to have the good sportsmanship. Character is developed through social activities such as sports. Sports injuries among youth sports organization may be a compelling argument, but studies shows that youth sports is a good form of psychology for children’s’ mind and body development, which leads to a healthier adulthood.Schools need to emphasize to a greater length to get children in sports at school, because most children go out and play in organized sports that take away time from their studies, because of the fact organized sports can also create demands and expectations that exceed the readiness and capabilities of young participants. Many professional athletes today played in high school sports along with organized sports to develop more skill for the game and to stay out of trouble with the law. Playing organized sports do have benefits also have consequences.Coaches push children to start lifting weights at a young age to develop strength this may cause a stun in growth, others are risk of injury like in baseball young pitchers can hurt their arms, how many pitchers should a youth athlete do, to many could damage the arm, where do coaches and leagues draw the line well in League Little eleven to twelve year olds cannot exceed 85 pitches a day. â€Å"The necessary commitment and intensity of training in some youth sports programs raise concerns about the sensibility and safety of high level athletics for any young athlete.Is impo rtant to avoid potential serious risk or injury, and make sure youth athletes not to excess training and competition† (American Academy of Pediatrics). Sports do build character in children starting at the right age many children can get ready for life, such values as these. One: Helps a child’s overall physical development. Two: Gives the child the opportunity to become familiar with his or her body and to learn the body’s need and limits. Three: Social interaction with their peers. Four: Teaches teamwork, cooperation and to follow the rules.Five: Gives parents the opportunity of offering the child unqualified support in playing sports. Six: Helps the child learn for him/herself if winning or losing is important. Seven: Helps the child gain acceptance and credibility among his or peers. These values were in a popular book for coaches who want to learn more about youth sports. Children gain plenty of self-esteem through playing sports. Self-esteem has been define d as the â€Å"level of global regard one has for the self† (Harter, 1993). For reasons like exercising helps self-esteem issues people feel better, look better, and less risk of injury. An attempt to investigate the possible benefits of exercise, researchers has asked whether exercise activity might be related to self-esteem and to body satisfaction. Indeed, body satisfaction might mediate any relationship between exercise activity and self- esteem (Vealey, 1992). Many teams exercise together in groups for young athletes to gain social interaction and also group conformity with his or her peers. Having confidences has a large amount to do with self-esteem, but where does a youth athlete get confidences in sports?Many places in sports for one is winning, teams who win gain confidences as a team and individuals with anything in life not just sports if an individual wins something no matter how little or big the prize is that individual gains some sort of confidences. Coaches h andle out individual awards to youth athletes along with league organizations that the children are playing in that can gain numerous confidences levels and achievements to last a lifetime. Difference between individual sports and team sports effects. What defines team sports from individual sports, team sports include, hockey, football, baseball/ softball, and basketball.Individual sports are the following, golf, swimming, gymnastics, and ice-skating just to name a few. There are effects from each sport being an individual playing a sport that person is to rely upon him or herself to perform well to their capabilities, whereas in a team sport much work go into teamwork and working well with others. Also Individual players have to hold a high stamina rating and be able to take command of the game well. If an athlete is aggressive that athlete shouldn’t play team sports where if that athlete plays an individual sport problems of aggression won’t arise.Now some team spor ts have individuals have games where they dominate the game by themselves, but the credit doesn’t go to that individual it is a team sport and a team effort. Individual sports are based and the individual who dominates the game will ultimate be declared the winner. In a team sports if the team is playing badly that team could still win the game based and other players performing to their needs. Which sport has more pressure the individual sports do because of the fact it is relied on just one person to win, but if that person can hold pressure well and love for individualism that is where they belong.Developmental advice regarding sports effects to parents to coaches? Parents are important agents of sport socialization for both their sons and their daughters. â€Å"Parents who value strenuous team sports are more likely to influence their children to join a team or at least participate in some kind of exercise, and spend less time in front of the TV or computer, a new study says† (Science Daily). Parents have been known to support their child in whatever sport it is they decide to play in; parents who are involved have a good correlation with the coach. Parents need to let the coaches be coaches and have their children listen and learn.Too many times parents get too involved with their children’s sports that it has led to the unwilling effort from children to play the game and to stop playing the sport all together. What causes children’s to quit playing sports is pressure from parents and sometimes their coaches. Best way is to let the child figure out on their if playing that sport is right for them if not to decide whether to keep playing or to end it all together maybe give another sport a try. Parents and coaches need to show sportsmanship during game and after game no matter what the outcome is this can rub off on youth athletes if poor sportsmanship is evident.Are there gender differences in sports effects on youth? Yes many youth athletes don’t get to play with siblings say if brother is playing his chances of playing with his sister are slim to nothing especially if the brother is a good athlete. Youth sports seem to segregate boys and girls from playing together. Women sports are not usually popular in mass media. Male sports is broadcasted everywhere on television. Girls playing sports can get frustrated by not seeing many women sports on television, by not seeing women playing sports on television or at events girls can be shied away from being involved with sports activities.Where boys can see and attend men sporting events to lead them wanting to play sports more. Is the redefinition of sex roles having on impact on the â€Å"male perspective† of sport? Women are entourage to play sports much more now than ever before, males have been known to watch women sports, like World Series of softball, women soccer, and women beach volleyball. I believe that participating in team sports help to develop serviceable character. Overall I can say that, it assists to develop discipline, which is something every person exigency to include in their lives.Even I believe that the good character is hard to develop. One of the main things that help to evolve good character considerably is team sports. People will develop how to work being with others even they will develop their ability of trusting someone. Team works provide confidence, dedication, fun, possible scholarships. More over team sports playing kids would accomplish better academic result compare to those who are individuals. That is the reason team sports develop good character. For a single player it is hard to target the goal but if they are all together then achieving the goal becomes easier.Being part of a team makes a person learn to not only work well with others but bond off the field. This preparation prepares athletes for when they go into the work world. Athletes tend to be a lot more social and outgoing an d work very well with other people. This is because they grow up learning to become friends with unknown people and work with them. The team oriented concept that is built into athletes plays such an important role of being confident and working well with others in the future.

Cultural Diffusion, Space-Time Compression and the Limitations on Spatial Interaction Essay

â€Å"Globalization in a Bottle† and â€Å"The Tipping Point– Three Rules of Epidemics† Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Essay Question: How do the two articles relate to Chapter One: Basic Concepts through cultural diffusion, the limitation of spatial interaction, and space-time compression? Whilst reading â€Å"Globalization in a Bottle† and â€Å"The Tipping Point– Three Rules of Epidemics† three key concepts of â€Å"Chapter One: Basic Concepts† become inherently apparent: cultural diffusion, the limitation of spatial interaction, and space-time compression. The two articles clearly depict these three theories, through their choice use of real world examples. In each of these articles, cultural diffusion is a steady theme throughout. World War II marked the diffusion of Coca-Cola on a global scale, as stated in â€Å"Globalization in a Bottle.† The physical movement of soldiers from the US to other parts of the globe facilitated the spread and globalization of the drink and furthermore the brand name. When soldiers were shipped off to foreign lands so was Coca-Cola, and so it became a universal term. This action of spreading an idea through movement earns this incident a spot under the category of relocation diffusion. In â€Å"The Tipping Point– Three Rules of Epidemics† hush-puppies become popular once more through contagious diffusion, a subcategory of expansion diffusion, meaning an idea spread through rapid and widespread contact. The origin of this so-called â€Å"epidemic† is believed to have originated among the urban â€Å"hipsters† of downtown Manhattan. These young trendsetters would go out to clubs or just simply be seen wearing these shoes and suddenly everyone wanted a pair. Diffusion is a large concept covered throughout these articles. Another underlying idea covered in the extent of the two articles is the limitation of spatial interaction—the interaction of people whether through physical contact or by other means of communication. In â€Å"Globalization in a Bottle† this is covered by the resistance of the  numerous other countries to building more Coca-Cola processing plants in their territory. Many nations looked at the company as a way to spread Americas demoralizing traditions, therefore they refused to allow Coca-Cola to initially be diffused into their cultures. In â€Å"The Tipping Point– Three Rules of Epidemics† the author writes about the sexu al promiscuity of homosexual men and their so called aid in the spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In turn, this â€Å"lewdness† has led members of society with different sexual orientations to look at the gay community as a negative aspect of modern humanity, impeding spatial interaction between the two. One final concept embedded in the two articles is space-time compression, which is the reduction in the time it takes to diffuse something to a distant place as a result of improved communications and transportation systems. Due to the advancements in transportation, the soldiers of World War II were able to transport, and therefore facilitate the diffusion of, Coca-Cola. The same is seen with the newfound demand of hush puppies through word-of-mouth with the upgrades in communication. Overall, both articles clearly portray a society in which space-time compression is fully functioning. In conclusion, â€Å"Globalization in a Bottle† and â€Å"The Tipping Point– Three Rules of Epidemics† are both distinctly ingrained with the theories of cultural diffu sion, limitations of spatial interaction, and space-time compression. The articles utilise great examples of the three ideas and truly give them meaning.

Witness Report

EVAN 101 2/28/2013 Witness Report PART ONE – What method of evangelism did you use and how did you start the conversation? The method I chose to use to witness to a young lady, who has been a friend of the family for a long time, was the relational method. While at my grandson’s first birthday party I engaged in a conversation with a longtime friend of my daughters. She has a baby that is close to my grandson’s age. The first thing I did was give her a big welcoming hug. We haven’t seen her in about seven or eight years.She had expressed to me the importance of being a good mother. She talked about how she never let her daughter stay with anyone except for her dad. We talked about the nursery that is available at the church we attend. Because she is a single mother, I helped with her daughter as far as holding her and guiding her away from danger such as stairs and open doors to the restroom. I did this in hopes of building a trust so that she would feel c omfortable with going to church with us.We talked about how our church has purchased property and in the process of building a new church. I explained to her the many exciting activities the church has planned for the next couple of months. I believe the seed was planted many years ago when this young lady hung out at my house as a teenager with my daughter. She moved from the neighborhood to live with her dad and now we are reunited because we moved to a neighboring city. PART TWO – What was the reaction (questions/comments/statements) of the unbeliever?We talked about how she had decided not to have anymore children because of her contracting gestational diabetes, and having such a difficult high risk pregnancy. I assured her that each pregnany would be different. I also told her not to let herself be robbed of God’s blessing for her. My daughter’s friend seemed very interested in going to church with us. She had attended church with us in the past better neve r made a decision. Her focus seems to be that she wanted to raise her daughter in church. She said she didn’t want to leave her daughter with anyone in the nursery.I work with another lady in children’s church. Hopefully we will have established a more trusting relationship that she will feel comfortable enough to leave her with me. PART THREE – How did you conclude the conversation in order to follow up? To conclude our conversation, I offered her transportation if needed to attend church. I also told her if there was anything she needed in the mean time or if she just wanted to visit to let me know. After telling her how nice it was to see her I gave her another hug and she assured me that she was planning on visiting our church.

Gender Inequality and Discrimination Essay

The working environment in the United States is still not free of gender discrimination. There are still many cases of arbitrary discrimination that come to the attention of the public, such as Chrapliwy v. Uniroyal. The court case challenged the system of Uniroyal Inc. (a rubber company), which employed mostly female workers in their footwear production division, while males dominated the other lines. This segregation is arbitrary gender discrimination, for there is no biological reason as to why women are more suited to working with footwear as opposed to men. Furthermore, there is an inequality in pay rate between men and women. In an article about gender differences, Time Magazine found that for every dollar a man makes at a certain job, a woman makes only $0.79 at the same job. This may be filed under arbitrary discrimination, for the benefits of this position are brought about by irrational decision-making. The question of gender should have nothing to do with the pay rate in cases that deal with the same employment opportunity. Sex discrimination is commonly defined as the â€Å"arbitrary or irrational use of gender in the awarding of benefits or positions†. In other words, even when a job does not relate to gender roles, the employer chooses to consider gender when hiring employees. For example, the job of a teacher is very gender-neutral; the job skills do not require anything special that only one sex provides. A construction worker, on the other hand, must be physically strong, and in this case, generally speaking more men are suited for this role. If a school principal were to hire a new teacher (from an applicant pool of both men and women) based solely on the fact that he doesn’t want to hire a woman, this is an example of arbitrary discrimination. The logic behind the decision is irrational, for the woman may be more qualified than the man, but the benefits are no t awarded to her only because of her gender. Kymlicka goes on to describe gender inequalities: these are already built-into jobs and positions so that women are at a disadvantage. Men have defined job roles and thus have made it more difficult for women to be suited for these roles. The most common example is  of jobs that require the employee to be free from childcare. This means that the employee is not the primary, full-time childcare provider. For example, lawyers work full-time, which is near impossible with young children to take care of. The raising of a child in itself is a full-time responsibility, so it is difficult to balance with a demanding career. In this case, Kymlicka would argue that men would naturally be more suited to the job of a lawyer because men have structured this job â€Å"in such a way as to make [it] incompatible with child-bearing and child-rearing, and which does not provide economic compensation for domestic labor†. In other words, because society views childrearing as the female’s role, and childrearing requires much time and attention, a lawyer is a male-suited role because it requires much time, which males ha ve. Although Will Kymlicka gives a good analysis of the gender discrimination and inequalities that happen in today’s society, his solution is not enough to answer the broader political and psychological question that society faces. Kymlicka argues, â€Å"Since the problem is domination, the solution is not only the absence of discrimination but the presence of power†. He says that if women could have the power to redefine the existing job roles (or if they would have had the power to define the job roles when they were created), â€Å"we would not have created a system of social roles that defines ‘male’ jobs as superior to ‘female’ jobs†. I believe that the real issue is not how women can redefine pre-existing jobs so that gender inequality is abolished; but rather, how can society change its prejudices towards the role of women through the restructuring of laws and policy implementation? Instead of changing job characteristics so that they become gender-neutral, society should look at men and women as equals so that women have an equal chance at fitting the demanding roles that have already been established. One can start by looking at a doctor as an example of a male-defined profession that is arguably becoming female-dominated. To become a doctor, much education is needed, and when this job was created, only men had the ability to get this higher education. The first woman to graduate from medical school (Elizabeth Blackwell) did so in 1849: much later than the men who graduated from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School in 1765. Now that the admissions gender ratio of medical schools are about even, this has ceased to be a â€Å"male† job; rather, it is gender neutral. On the other hand, the career of an attorney still has a major  discrepancy between the sexes. Even though 49% of law school graduates are female, they only make up 27% of licensed lawyers in the country. Obviously, the access to education is equal, and so does not contribute to the male dominance of this field. On the contrary, this job is male-suited because of the limitations that it poses for women who wish to have children. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the position of attorney is extremely time-demanding: lawyers are forced to work irregular hours, weekends, with 33% working over 50 hours per week. How can this job be redefined so as to allow more women to be competitive in the job market? Kymlicka would suggest that women be empowered to redefine the position to suit them better—this would mean redefining the position by not working as many hours. If it can be done, it will be difficult. The alternative to this solution is to go to the source of the problem: the gender roles that society already holds. Women are usually the primary source of childcare; this means that their employment opportunities are severely limited to those jobs that have flexible hours in which they could balance domestic and public/private sector work—jobs unlike that of a lawyer. If society would be more accepting of males being the primary caregiver for children, the number of males who either stay at home or take on less-demanding occupations would displace the high number of women who already fill this role. The women who would enter the job market would then be on equal terms with their male counterparts seeking the same demanding jobs. If society would view the two genders as equal for child rearing (e.g. women are not the majority of primary caretakers), there are still complications that arise from the roles, which are deterrents for women. For instance, even if the woman is not the primary caretaker of the child after pregnancy, this does not make up for the fact that there is still a period where she is unable to work due to pregnancy. In other words, the role of mother and father can never be fully equal because the mother has the extra responsibility of carrying the baby to term. However, if the social roles for each gender were to be equal, viewing paternity leave as mandatory could solve this problem. According to the Newborns’ and Mothers’ Health Protection Act of 1996, health plans must pay for at least 48-hour (vaginal) or 96-hour (caesarean) hospital stay afte r childbirth. This means that at the minimum, a woman should take two days off for maternity leave to recover, if nothing else. Although a man does not  need to physically recuperate from childbirth or pregnancy, he is still a parent of the child and should be viewed with equal consideration when dealing with childcare issues. By making paternity leave mandatory, employers could no longer discriminate between the sexes by accounting for the time lost due to pregnancy. This would not be a difficult policy to implement, considering 71% of fathers took advantage of paternity leave in 2007. To expand on the idea that the roles of the sexes cannot be equal in every aspect: mothers who choose to breastfeed are at a disadvantage, for they will likely take more days for maternity leave. Under the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), a woman can take up to 12 weeks off of work. This option serves as a reason why an employer may not hire a woman, even if the social roles of men and women were equal. However, this can be easily fixed by creating an incentive for women to choose to formula-feed or to pump their breast milk—this would make it so that they could return to work as soon as a man would. The FMLA states that although maternity and paternity leaves are unpaid, health benefits still apply. These health benefits could extend to partially cover the cost of formula or a pump. Baby formula is very costly because of the quantity that is needed, and breast pumps and bags can range from $20 to over $200 (depending if it is manual or electric). By making alternative options to breastfeeding more accessible, women need not take more time off than men, and so gender inequality is invalid. Furthermore, even if society views gender roles equally, this does not account for the fact that the majority of men are physically superior to the majority of women when it comes to manual labor. Looking at any construction or shipping sites, one will find that if not entirely composed of men, almost all employees are male. Obviously, if the job is physically demanding and the male sex is the most equipped at handling physically demanding jobs, females will very rarely be more qualified for the job than a male applicant. This can be remedied by the use of technology. In today’s society, much manual labor can be handled my machines that are designed to lift even more than a human being can. These machines need not be operated by those physically superior. If we take manual labor out of the equation by adding technology, both sexes would have an equal opportunity at the job; this is considering the fact that neither sex is inferior in controlling technology. It is here where society can put aside sexual differences and  instead become â€Å"sex-blind†. A sex-blind society is one that does not take into account gender for the awarding of benefits through employment, opportunities, etc. There are many instances in which it would be helpful to have a sex-blind society, but there are some instances where different treatment of the sexes is justified. Kymlicka brings up the example of sex-segregated washrooms. These would not be considered discriminatory because the physical difference between the sexes calls for different treatment. Still, these instances are so rare and are so well justified that they should not interfere with the important notion of the sex-blind society. By eliminating the need for discrimination in manual labor due to physical differences through the implementation of technology, society can successfully become sex-blind and thus end gender discrimination. So to answer the question of how to change society’s prejudices towards the role of women, it is obvious that if minor changes are made to these demanding jobs, they can be viewed as gender-neutral. This in turn will allow more women to compete against men for a variety of jobs. Instead of redefining job roles, society must redefine gender roles through the lens of childrearing; this is so that jobs that are now limited to those individuals without the responsibility of childcare may become more gender-diverse in competition. Today’s society has all the resources needed to implement these changes—it’s just a matter of time until they are enacted in policies and eventually shift gender relations and stereotypes in favor of gender equality. Works Cited Armour, Stephanie. â€Å"Workplace tensions rise as dads seek family time.† USA Today, December 11, 2007. Accessed May 9, 2011. http://www.usatoday.com/money/workplace/2007-12-10-working-dads_N.htm. â€Å"Chrapliwy v. Uniroyal.† Wikipedia. Accessed May 9, 2011. Last modified February 22, 2011. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrapliwy_v._Uniroyal. Cloud, John. â€Å"If Women Were More Like Men: Why Females Earn Less.† Time Magazine. Accessed May 9, 2011. Last modified October 3, 2008. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1847194,00.html. Kymlicka, Will. Sexual Equality and Discrimination: Difference vs. Dominance. 1990. In Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social, and Political Philosophy, edited by John Arthur and Steven Scalet, 572-575. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009. â€Å"Leave Benefits: Family & Medical Leave.† US Department of Labor. Accessed May 9, 2011. http://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/benefits-leave/fmla.htm. Lewis, Jone Johnson. â€Å"Elizabeth Blackwell: First Woman Physician.† About: Women’s History. Accessed May 9, 2011. http://womenshistory.about.com/od/blackwellelizabeth/a/eliz_blackwell.htm. Lloyd, Mark Frazier. â€Å"The University of Pennsylvania: America’s First University.† University Archives and Records Center University of Pennsylvania. Accessed May 9, 2011. Last modified November 1999. http://www.archives.upenn.edu/histy/genlhistory/firstuniv.html. â€Å"Newborns’ and Mothers’ Health Protection Act.â €  US Department of Labor, Employee Benefits Security Administration. Accessed May 9, 2011. http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/newsroom/fsnmhafs.html. â€Å"Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition, Lawyers.† Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed May 9, 2011. Last modified December 17, 2009. http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos053.htm. Werner, Wendy. â€Å"Where Have the Women Attorneys Gone? .† Law Practice Today. Accessed May 9, 2011. Last modified May 2004. http://apps.americanbar.org/lpm/lpt/articles/mgt05041.html.

Fair Value accounting Essay

The squabble on the issue of what accounting measurements will be used as the standard for financial instruments had caused the on-going debate with various proponents of accounting standard; even today, proponents of every side argues on the basis of their advantages over the others. Among these contending parties are the proponents of the fair value accounting and those who favored accounting standard based on the historical costs. Hitz (2007, p. 324) pointed out the increasing importance of fair value as an accounting measurement attributes. Hitz stated that today, the â€Å"cost and transaction-based reporting model is in decline and a new market value and event-based model is on the rise† (Hitz, p. 324). Citing the significance of fair value accounting, Hitz mentioned that starting out as a specific remedy for the iniquities of the reporting model for certain financial instruments â€Å"fair value has manifested it self as a dominant measurement paradigm for financial instruments and, more recently, has increasingly been implemented for measurements of non-financial items† (Hitz, 324) such as investment property. On the other hand, while Hitz adhere to the tenets of fair value accounting, he recognized the views of the opponents of fair value accounting particularly the criticism regarding the questionable reliability of fair value measures notably for model-based estimates relying on management’s expectation and projections. However, Hitz asserts that results on empirical research regarding value measurement â€Å"support the incremental value relevance of fair value disclosure for securities (Petroni and Wahlen, 1995; Barth et al., 1996 as cited by Hitz). The Australian accounting standards Board (AASB) though recognizes other accounting standards it recognizes fair value accounting as the main financial instruments which applies in various financial processes and transaction within AASB. The AASB defines Fair value as â€Å"the amount for which an asset could be exchanged or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arms length transaction† (p. 21) Fair value has been the standards in evaluating and managing the performances of a group financial assets or financial liabilities. In the ASSB 7, paragraph 9 to 11 and B 4 the ASSB require the entity to provide disclosures about financial assets and financial liabilities it has designated at fair value through profit or loss including how it satisfied these conditions (ASSB, p. 17). This clearly indicate that fair value accounting as a financial standard instrument have been effectively use and provide significant contribution to the financial situation. This is clearly reflected in the following statement from the ASSB as follows: â€Å"investment in equity instrument that do not have a quoted market price in an active market, and whose fair value cannot be reliably measured shall not be designated as at fair value through profit or loss† (p. 18). The Fair value of any investment plays an important in determining market condition as the fair value of a particular financial instrument is based on the following factors a. the time value of money, b. the credit risk, c. foreign currency exchange prices, d. commodity prices, e. equity prices, f. volatility, and g. payment risk. Regardless of the accounting standard used, accounting plays an important role in financial reporting. While M. J. Milne’s discussion focus on the importance of accounting in financial management including accounting standards that lead to increases in reported earnings,   citing the arguments of Watt and Zimmerman Milne (2002) puts it â€Å"Managers have greater incentives to choose accounting standards which lower earnings thereby increasing cash flows, firm value, and their welfare, due to tax political, and regulatory considerations than to choose accounting standards which reports higher earnings and, thereby increase their incentive compensation† (p. 372). Obviously, accounting standards contributes to the financial situation not only of the firm that uses such standards but the entire financial realm. In this case, Milne partly hinted as to why trillions of dollars went off the global financial market balance sheets and why asset values experience decline. Milne seem to mean that managers choose accounting standards that reported lower earning yet, it increase the firm’s cash flows, the firm value, and their welfare, due to higher tax and political pressures. In this case the real market value as well as the real earnings were reassigned to somewhere else or as Milne suggest, to cash flows and their value. Given this accounting standard, it is no wonder that management will lobby financial instrument that reduce reported earnings to avoid taxes, regulatory procedures, and all other costs. As Milne stressed, â€Å"ordinarily, managers are predicted to have greater incentives to lobby for accounting standards that lead to increase in reported earnings and thereby management wealth. However, since changes in cash flows and stock prices can also be affected by taxes, regulatory procedures, information costs and political costs, managers also have to consider the effects of reported earnings might have on the likelihood that such costs could be imposed on the firm† (p. 372). The trillions of dollars that were written off the global financial market balance sheets and the massive decline of asset values can therefore be attributed to these factors accompanying this accounting standard, and the commentators were partly right in their opinion regarding this massive decline of asset values. However, this does suggest that that money going to taxes, regulatory procedures, political costs, and information costs are lost money and that regulatory procedure should be viewed as negative for business activities. Regulatory procedures should be viewed in even broader terms that include all forms of social control and influence. Michael Greiffin emphasized that this should also include â€Å"not only the corporations legislative requirement but also other rules and directions, such as professional accounting standards and stock exchange requirements† (p. 2 par. 3). Graffikin pointed out that regulation is considered desirable â€Å"where there windfall profits† – where through some fortuitous event is able to make above â€Å"normal† profits. Regulations should be seen as necessary in the rationalization and coordination of economic activity so as to organize behaviour of industries in an efficient manner (graffikin, p. 3).

Definition Rough Draft & Final Draft Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Definition Rough Draft & Final Draft - Assignment Example ng, starting anywhere to writing, keeps moving, leaving blank spaces in case one gets short of ideas, giving it a breath and reviewing the draft (Frew, Robert and Nancy,pp.103-104). Brainstorming is the first step that each draft must pass, under this step, the writer put all the ideas into writing without evaluating or eliminating any idea. This allow the writer to have a general view of what is expected and then narrowing down the most appropriate and applicable idea. Writing a draft is the second stage where the writer does not put more emphasize on spelling, one just write down the idea to form a rough draft. Thirdly, the writer may start at anywhere while writing a rough draft. This means that one may start from the body and write an introduction and conclusion later. The writer should keep moving /writing to ensure that all ideas in the minds are put down into writing. In addition one has the freedom to leave blank space when writing a rough draft. After forming the rough draft the writer should give it time and come back later to make necessary amendments. This may allow the writer to make grammatical corrections. This may help the writer to come up with the final draft (Frew, Robert and Nancy,