The Life and Times of Pat Brown Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Life and Times of Pat Brown - Essay Example And it all began because of one man's unselfish and noble direction to produce the best results for California disregarding the growing population and his own political career. Edmund Gerald Brown had an early prediction of having a business and political career set before his eyes. He was the grandson of Augustus Schuckman and Joseph Brown, the father of his father, Edmund Joseph Brown who were one of the early successful business men who came to California in the 1800s (Rarick, "California Rising" 8-14). Resembling the same courage and desire as his ancestors', Edmund Brown abandoned his old life, hunted for a brighter future in the West, and considered California as his homeland. Edmund learned how to become a young entrepreneur from his father. Edmund and his brother learned the world of commerce by selling newspapers and snapped cheap pictures in the streets. During the World War I, Edmund encouraged people to buy liberty bonds by giving four-minute speeches in school. During this time, he acquired the name Patrick Henry Brown that has shortened to "Pat" because at the end of his speech, he would shout: "Give me liberty or give me death!" In high scho ol, he had used his organizing skills by being a leader of the groups he joined into. When he graduated in 1923, he worked for his father as a cashier for awhile before he decided to pursue law in San Francisco Law School. Because public speaking was a gift for him, he was given the roles of the yell leader and debating club president. While he was studying at law school, he was offered a job as a personal assistant by a blind lawyer named Milton Schmitt. He graduated law, top-notching his class. And upon Schmitt's death, he took over the practice. Pat Brown's political career started when he altered from being a republican to a democrat. He believed that prioritizing the nation's woes are necessary (Rarick, "California Rising" 25-26). "For the first time in his life, he was a democrat, the political label that would define his career. In the long years that follow, he never thought of going back." He stated that, "changing parties was akin to finding a new religion" which meant that he wanted to become a democrat for the rest of his life and "wanted to do things for people and felt that the government had a part in it, felt that the government should aid and assist." Brown took on campaign chores for the democrats' candidate for governor, Culbert Olson. He headed his fund-raising committee and speaker's bureau for all of North California and he won. But Brown did not land a job with Olson and though disappointed, he built his own course instead in hometown politics. In 1939, he had run for incumbent district attorney in San F rancisco as a democrat still though he had no experience in criminal issues. Even though he lost, he considered it as "an opening wedge." In 1943, he pushed his luck again and won, serving for seven years. He became the Attorney General of California after that for eight whole years. In 1958, he was the democratic nominee for Governor of California. Pat Brown became the "activist governor" of California in 1959 when he defeated William F. Knowland. His first term was regarded to be full of vigour and accomplishment (Rarick, "California Rising" 3). He funded the development of public colleges and universities, built vast system of dams and

Groups in Organisations Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Groups in Organisations - Coursework Example communication skills, planning and management skills etc. Bruce W Tuckman has suggested a model of group development based on four stages. Here, I shall evaluate the process of group development at Sok-Fitness Center where I am a member of the marketing team. Sok-Fitness makes partners in the workforce, so I have a female colleague Sarah with whom I work. She makes the schedules, and I go and discuss the matters with the clients. The first stage of group development is of formation. This is basically the stage of understanding the need to form a group and integrating into it. People form groups in order to have a better understanding of who performs what in the course of achievement of the organizational objective. â€Å"†¦individuals are also gathering information and impressions - about each other, and about the scope of the task and how to approach it† (Chimaera Consulting Limited, 2001). Formation of a group unites people on one platform and they are able to avoid con flicts. Our group was formed by our manager, and the two of us were assigned our respective duties by him, so there were no misunderstandings. The second stage of group development is storming. This is the stage when people feel the need to conflict over issues of mutual interest or concern. Some people enter minor confrontations while others enter into severe kinds of conflicts. The level to which the conflicts storm up varies from one organization to another depending upon the culture and policies of an organization, yet it is never entirely inevitable. People look for rules to guide them on different matters. Sarah was a new employee and needed a bit of training before making the schedules. So in the start, she and I had had some misunderstandings. She referred me to various clients haphazardly. This was causing trouble. We consulted the manager. He told us that I can schedule for myself unless Sarah is sufficiently trained. The company organized one week’s training sessio n for Sarah after which she got skilled in making schedules. The third stage of group development is norming. This is the stage when the rules of engagement are developed. These rules help the people have a better understanding of their respective roles and responsibilities in the group. Once that is achieved, people perceive one another better and can appreciate one another’s skills and differences. However, after this stage, employees may become resistant to change because of their fear that the change might distort the group. We saw this stage after Sarah was trained. We did not have troubles thereafter. The manager asked us if we would like to exchange our roles, but neither of us opted for it. Performing is the fourth stage of group development and is rare to occur. This is a stage whereby every member of the group can emotionally connect with others and change the roles and responsibilities as per the need of the hour. This is a stage in which, the members entire effort is directed towards the achievement of the goal. We were fortunate enough to reach this stage. Q. 2 Some of the most common characteristics of a successful team are mission, empowerment, involvement, willingness to take risk, unity and change (Business Advantage International, 2008). Factors that can negatively affect the team include group think and dysfunctional conflicts. Several personality traits of individuals that make part of a team also have many positive and

Employee reward

Employee reward Employee Reward Assignment The aim of this essay is to discuss the advantages and disadvantages relating to broad-banding and grading pay structures. The first part of this paper will define broad-banding and grading pay structures. It will continue including various examples of both broad-branding and grading pay structures and also discussing the benefits and drawbacks of applying both structures within an organisation. The summary of the key findings will be included at the end of this paper in conclusion. A pay structure outlines the various levels of pay for jobs or groups of job by reference to their relative internal value as recognized by job evaluation and to external relativities as recognized by market rate surveys. In Figure 1.0 is an example of a Pay-graded structure. Example of a pay graded structure is shown in fig 1.0 (Google Images) The pay structures in organisations must be suitable to the necessary characteristics and needs of the required organisation and employees to enable it to work and be successful and worthwhile. The structures should make it attainable to achieve equity, operational flexibility and continuous development, steadiness and fairness in managing employee reward. The main types of pay structures are narrow-graded, Broad banded , job family, individual job grade, pay curve, spot rate and pay spine. Broad banding is the compression of a hierarchy of pay grades or salary ranges into a small number (typically four or five) of width bands. This was first introduced in organizations in the late 1980s and early 1990s (World at work, 2002). The aim of breaking down the job clusters or levels of positions into a fewer number of width bands are to: Provide pay structures which fit flatter organisation structures, Allow processes initially created to withstand hierarchy and vertical movement to be replaced, Work upon other methods of payment that reflect a broader range of employee development and contribution, as well as increased levels of competence, skill acquisition, incessant learning, career development and flexibility, etc. Each of the bands therefore spans the pay opportunities, which beforehand were covered by several pay ranges as illustrated in figure 2.0 Figure 2.0 Example of a broad-banded structure (Armstrong, 2002). ‘Broad banding is an attractive alternative to rigid, structured, specialized and hierarchical organizations. (Aon Consultings Forum, 2002). It differs from a conventional grading system due to the greater pay range within each band and the smaller number of bands. Determining the width of the bands requires care to be taken because if a band tends to be too broad it runs the risk of giving impractical expectations to those near the bottom. In this case, some organisations have introduced bands within bands, which are known as ‘zoning, and reason being is to contain expectations and make the structure more easily to understand and manage. The way Broad banding works is that, when job evaluation has been finalized, the artificial divisions, which normally differentiate between grades, are ignored. A group of titles such as manager, supervisor, operative, clerk are gathered into one large band. This then allows all employees in the organisation to fit into a salary structure, which may have as few as 5 broad bands as illustrated and mentioned above. Also, in Figure 3.0, is an example of a broad-banded salary structure. Figure 3.0 Example of Broad-banded salary structure (Stredwick, 2005) Adopting a broad banded structure concentrates on evaluating the individual, focusing on lateral career development and on competency growth rather than upward progression through a hierarchy. In a 1994 survey by the American Compensation Association/Hewitt Associates examined why organizations had implemented broad banding, 71% of the participants reported supporting a flatter organization and nurturing a new organizational culture, 57% mentioned the promotion of a widely skilled work force and facilitation of career development, and 55% reported minimizing administrative effort and reducing job evaluations. (Peters, 1994). Reasons as to why organizations adopt such an approach are; a de-emphasis on formal job evaluation systems can free up time for senior managers and compensation professionals to focus on critical business and people management issues. In addition to this, a broadband structure can support organizations with collaborative work styles that value process and results over control and status. (Aon Consultings Forum, 2002) Pay Expert Michael Armstrong recommends 12 steps for developing and installing a broad banded pay structure in his publication ‘ Employee Reward. A couple of examples of these steps are: ‘ Reach an agreement that it is the most appropriate pay structure for progression. ‘Decide on the width of bands, the degree of overlap (if any), the anchor points and pay zones. (LGE) Broad banded are most likely to be introduced to organisations, which are flexible, who do not operate with extended hierarchies and believe in continuous development. Broad banding continues to be an approach that has a great interest to managers seeking to enhance organisational performance. During the 1990s the number of companies implementing broad banding continued to increase from 10% of firms surveyed in 1993 to 23% in 1999. (HR Focus, 2000). Broad banding started out in the USA. William Mercer carried out a study in 1997. One of the outcomes of the study was that of approx. 3000 US organisations it was found that close to 45% had either installed the broad banding approach or were considering to do so. (Armstrong, 2002) Looking at the percentage, it is quite a large amount of organisations, which make broad banding look more attractive to other organisations that may be unsure about adopting this approach. Broad banding started of slow in the UK but research carried by Watson Wyatt in 1996 showed that 20 per cent of the 346 firms surveyed had introduced the system. More than half of the remaining firms planned to introduce it in their organisations. (Armstrong, 2002) Since then, there has been a considerable increase in the number of organisations with broad bands. The CIPD 1999/2000 survey of 193 organisations (Armstrong and Brown, 2001) found that 60 per cent of them had broad banded structures with five or fewer bands. Broad banding has become the most popular approach to the design of pay structures. In broad bands, pay is managed more flexibly than in a conventional graded structure and great is paid to market relativities. There are many advantages of adopting a broad banded structure as there are fewer number of bands which makes it easier to manage and an organisation operating with a small number of bands is able to address communication issues more effectively because it grades far more employees within the same pay category, greater width of bands, greater overlap between bands which means continuous development without being upgraded. Although broad banding has come to the force, graded pay structures remain the most standard types in the private sector, however broad banded structures are replacing traditional graded structures. ‘ In a broadband structure, the range of pay in a band is significantly higher than in a conventional graded structure. The band width may be as much as 100 per cent or even more, and there may be only four or five bands in the structure (Perret, 2007) As more employees will be grouped in the same band it can be used to reduce the status consciousness that is often found in a narrow banded pay structure. This in turn might help to focus employee attention to the external environment rather than internal equity. Broad-banding has flatter organisational structures and also encourages flexibility dispensing the need for constant regarding and promotion, less competition compared to graded pay as there is competition trying to compete to the next level of the structure rather than working as a team. ‘In broad banded pay systems, employees are encouraged to pursue the development of job skills the need to achieve the next promotion. (Loma, 1999) From research that was conducted it was found that in one large organization that had introduced broad banding, senior management reported that they received more thoughtful recommendations for promotions because managers did not need to promote people to get a raise simply because they were at the band ceiling. (Tyler, 1998) There are rewards rather than attributes in broad-banding and also worker commitment is at its highest. In traditional pay grading structures theres no prospects at getting to the top. In a business environment where organisations want to respond flexibly to global developments and customer requirements, the inflexibility of a traditional scheme has far too many disadvantages. Promotions are now far fewer as organisations have de-layered, reducing greatly the number of management and supervisory positions. Employees need to be far more flexible, willing to change their roles and learn more skills to meet the needs of the quickly changing their roles and learn more skills to meet the needs of the quickly changing national and international marketplace. The stiff, hierarchical grading structure is far less likely to match the quick-moving, responsive culture required in both manufacturing and service industries. They need to be able to adapt quickly to new changes being implemented. Despite the numerous advantages of the wider use of broad banding, at the close of the 90s, a Wyatt survey of 1,300 companies found that less than one in 10 used broad bands. If one was to remove the larger companies from the survey (5000 employees or more), only 6% to 7% used this approach. (Stern Associates, 2006) A few companies find that it works for them, but most are redesigning their structures to allow pay ranges to reflect the market. Conclusions As with any compensation structure, broad banding must be suited to the strategy, culture and employee needs of the particular employer. In my opinion and after careful consideration on broad banded structures I feel a broadband structure is best adopted in a culture that is flexible and team-based or at least is moving quickly in that direction. Companies should carefully weigh broad bandings pros and cons to ensure it fits with their organizational culture and business goals. Despite all the advantages of the broad banded systems, broad bands are still viewed as a novel approach to pay, yet to be proven workable. While companies continue to move to broadband pay programs, anecdotal reports indicate that many early-adopters are returning to more traditional pay structures. Clearly it is found that managers in organizations that have implemented broad banding believe they will have greater flexibility in directing the workforce if they can move people more readily in all directions within the organization without the constraints of narrowly defined jobs and restrictive pay grades/ranges.

Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance

Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance Introduction To succeed in a given sport at any level of competition, athletes must possess specific physiologic, psychologic, and biomechanic traits critical to success in that sport, but they must also receive optimal physical, mental, and biomechanical training to maximise this genetic potential (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). However many athletes believe that the combination of genetic traits and optimal training alone are not sufficient to achieve maximum performance, therefore the use of ergogenic aids has become common to improve sports performance beyond the effect of training (Sundgot-Borgen, Berglund Torstveit, 2003). The use of ergogenic aids will allow athletes to gain that competitive advantage over opponents therefore leading to potential success. According to Williams, Kreider Branch, (1999) ergogenic aids are substances or treatments that are theoretically designed to enhance physical power, mental strength or mechanical edge therefore potentially improving athletic performa nce. Given the various demands of team sports such as Soccer, Rugby and Hockey, which require short intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise which are interspersed by low level exercise, it seems feasible the use of ergogenic aids in such sports may enhance and benefit performance to gain that competitive edge over opponents. One ergogenic aid which has become popular among amateur, professional and recreational athletes over recent years is Creatine Monohydrate (Cr). Creatine is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative which is found in skeletal muscle, but is also a normal dietary constituent with a daily requirement of approximately 2 to 3 grams depending on body size (Ostojic, 2001). The majority of creatine in muscles is stored in the form of phosphocreatine (PCr) which serves as an important contributor to energy metabolism during high intensity exercise (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). PCr provides the high energy phosphate for adenine diphosphate (ADP) to restore adenine triphosphate (ATP) concentration rapidly via the Cr kinase (CK) reaction (Clarkson, 1996). Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, (1967) demonstrated that depletion of PCr stores within the muscles can lead to a decline in athletic performance during high intensity exercise, so theoretically increasing PCr stores through Cr supplementation would enhance the ability to maintain high intensity exercise over a prolonged period of time, leading to increases in sporting performance. Ahmun (2005) and Hultman, Soderlund, Timmons, Cederblad, Greenhaff, (1996) demonstrated that the average Cr concentration in human muscle can be increased through Cr supplementation over a 7 day period from 20% pre Cr to 50% post Cr. Since PCr is a substrate for the ATP-PCr energy system which is essential for high intensity exercise of 30 seconds or less it seems logical that the supplementation of Cr would be beneficial to exercise tasks of this duration. Therefore the majority of previous research has focused on bouts of anaerobic performance of To date the effect of Cr supplementation on athletic performance has been widely researched. This includes include positive effects of Cr supplementation over a prolonged period of over 4 weeks which is otherwise known as the maintenance phase (Knehans, Bemben, Bemben and Loftiss, 1998; Larson, Hunter, Trowbridge, Turk, Harbin and Torman, 1998). Also demonstrated have been positive effects of Cr supplementation on exercise performance using a shorter ingestion period known as the loading phase (Stout, Echerson, Noonan, Moore, and Cullen, 1999; Volek, Boetes, Bush, Putukian, Sebastianelli and Kraemer, 1997a). This includes improvements in performance variables such as strength, speed and delaying the onset of fatigue (Okudan and Gokbel, 2004; Volek, Kraemer, Bush, Boetes, Incledon, Clark and Lynch 1997b; Kocak Karli , 2003) Team sports consist of repeated bouts of intermittent high intensity exercise therefore consistently relying on the ATP-PCr energy system which if depleted can have a major factor on performance and the outcome of a game (Ostojic, 2004). One such sport which consists of repeated bouts of high intensity exercise is soccer. Soccer players are required to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003). Such high intensity instances could be the deciding factor of a game, for example sprinting back to make a game saving tackle or sprinting past a defender to the ball to make a shot. One high intensity exercise instance which occurs in a soccer match are bouts of sprinting, which are estimated to consist of 8.1% of a 90 minute match and occur approximately every 90 seconds lasting between two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso, 1991). Given the fact that there is considerable support for Cr as an ergogenic aid it would be reasonable to suggest that a soccer players sprint performance would benefit from Cr supplementation. However there is minimal research which has looked into the effects of Cr on sprint performance and variables of soccer match play such as agility running, lateral stepping and running backwards( Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke 2002; Ostojic, 2004; Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquierdo and Gorostiaga, 2000). The aforementioned studies have determined the effects of Cr on elite soccer players, female soccer players and youth soccer players (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al., 2000; Smart et al 1998; Cox et al., 2002). However there is no present research that looks into the effects of acute ( Another aspect to consider upon testing the effects of Cr on sprint performance on amateur soccer players is the protocol to be used. Although there have been many protocols which have been designed to measure and simulate soccer performance, plenty of these have failed to adequately simulate the different movement patterns (sprinting, walking, running backwards, lateral stepping) which are involved in a game of soccer (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Abt, Reaburn, Holmes and Gear, 2003; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004). It seems rational that when assessing components of soccer performance that the protocol that is utilised replicates the different activity patterns and demands of soccer match. If this is not taken into consideration it becomes difficult to determine whether Cr supplementation will have any benefit on soccer performance. Therefore the utilised protocol needs to concisely replicate movement patterns in soccer so that a valid assumption can be made to determine the erogen eity of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in amateur soccer players. Thus the purpose of this study is to conduct an investigation that will determine the effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in Caucasian male amateur soccer players, using a soccer simulation protocol in an accurate, valid and reliable manner with two trials consisting over a 7 day period. Concluding whether or not acute Cr supplementation can be used as an ergogenic aid to improve a footballers sprint performance, therefore recommending to athletes and coaches alike. Literature Review Creatine Monohydrate: Background Creatine monohydrate is one of the most popular sporting supplements in the world today and is used by high school athletes, the elderly, professional and recreational athletes in the hope of improving physical performance (Bemben and Lamont, 2005). It is the most commonly available Cr supplement and the form primarily used in most research studies. Cr monohydrate comes in a number of forms including powder, tablets, gel, liquid, chewing gum and candy (Williams, Kreider and Branch, 1999, p.43). Greenhaff (1997) indicated powdered Cr, ingested with solution to have a quicker absorption rate at raising muscle Cr concentration than using Cr supplementation of a tablet form. Conversely Vuckovich and Michaelis (1999) reported no significant difference in absorption rate between the two different forms. Dosage methods The supplementation dosages of Cr can be broken down into two different phases, otherwise known as the loading phase and maintenance phase. The loading phase that is commonly used in research consists of ingesting daily, 20-30g of Cr in four equal doses of 5-7g dissolved in around 250ml of fluid interspersed throughout the course of the day (preferably morning, noon, afternoon and evening) for a period of 5 to 7 days (Greenhaff, 1997; Kreider, 1997). Hultman et al (1996) utilised a less intense loading method of 3g/day for 28 days and proposed it to be just as effective as the aforementioned loading protocol. However this method places a longer dependency on subjects to comply with the supplementation program, therefore placing more variables into the reliability of results. Following the loading phase, maintenance dosages are considerably lower. Most research investigating the effects of Cr using the maintenance phase, have utilised dosages of 3 to 15g over a 4 to 10 week period (Bemben et al., 2001; Kreider et al., 1998; Stone et al., 1999; Vandenberghe et al., 1997). It is recommended to consume Cr with warm water, as it facilitates the dissolving of the solution and also aid absorption (Harris et al., 1992). It should also be noted that the ingestion of caffeine during Cr supplementation eradicates its potential ergogenic effect (Vandenberghe et al., 1996; Van Leemputte, Vanstapel Hespel, 1997). Vandenberghe et al (1996) demonstrated that a control group that ingested Cr combined with caffeine to have a lessened ergogenic potential compared to a group that ingested Cr without caffein e during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise. Side effects There is no conclusive scientific evidence to suggest that Cr ingestion has any negative side effects utilising the proposed dosage methods ( Larson et al., 1998; Schroder, Terrados Tramullas, 2005). There is further evidence to support this as Kreider et al (1999) found no negative side effects in athletes who had been ingesting Cr for up to 3 years. Poortmans and Francaux (1999) demonstrated similar findings for athletes for taking Cr for up to 5 years. Only undocumented anecdotal reports have reported any adverse negative side effects through Cr supplementation, this includes gastrointestinal distress, muscle cramping and dehydration (Associated press 1997, 1998). Taking dehydration into consideration such anecdotal research can be scrutinised. Oopik, Timpmann and Medijainen, (1995) demonstrated that Cr supplementation increased body mass, while also reporting increases in total body water. Such findings signify that Cr supplementation may prevent dehydration rather than be a cause, due to the fact it can promote water retention. Cr supplementation has been demonstrated to increase body mass by up to 2kg over an acute period of time (Balsom et al., 1995; Becque et al., 1997). This could be recognised as a negative side effect for athletes that compete in weight control sports, as Cr ingestion may impede their ability to make regulated weight in a forthcoming event. This gives a consensus that athletes in such activities need to be made aware that although Cr can promote gains in strength and power, it can increase body mass. Physiology of Soccer Soccer players are frequently required to produce high power outputs and maintain of repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery (Reilly and Thomas, 2003). This includes intermittent bouts of kicking, tackling, turning, sprinting, changing pace and maintaining balance and control of the ball whilst under pressure from an opponent (Wisloff, Helgerud Hoff, 1998). To gain a scientific perspective of the different physiological demands of soccer performance, match and time motion analysis have been utilised (Bangsbo, 1994). This analysis has allowed researchers to determine the overall workload of players during a 90 minute match by calculating total distance covered, and the pattern of activities performed during a game (e.g. sprinting, cruising, walking etc). Movement patterns of Soccer It is estimated that the total distance covered during a 90 minute soccer match varies from 8.7km to 11.5km ( Bangsbo Lindquist, 1992; Ekblom, 1986; Ohashi et al., (1988); Reilly and Thomas, 1976; 1988; Rampini et al., 2007; Wade, 1962). The large variance in distances covered are due in part to the differing styles of play, levels of competition and skill level of the teams that were utilised (Luxbacher, 1997). Reilly (1994) documented the different activity patterns of elite outfield players from the English top division and other major national leagues in Europe and Japan using different methods of match analysis. Results found that a 90 minute match consists of 24% walking, 36% jogging, 20% cruising sub maximally (striding), 11% sprinting, 7% moving backwards and 2% moving in possession of the ball. The categories of sprinting and cruising are defined as high intensity exercise. In terms of distances covered the ratio of low intensity exercise to high intensity exercise during a soccer match is 7 to 1 denoting that the outlay of energy for soccer is predominately aerobic ( Reilly and Thomas, 1976). However the importance for high intensity bouts during soccer match play should not be underestimated. The timing of such a bout could be the defining factor of a game whether in possession of the ball or without the ball. Although work-rate profiles are relatively consistent for players from game to game it is the high intensity exercise which is the most constant feature (Bangsbo, 1994). The number of sprints reported in a soccer game varies greatly from 17 to 62 (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Mohr, Krustrup Bangsbo, 2003). This variance is largely determined by the positional role of the player. Findings by Reilly (1996) demonstrated that midfielders and strikers completed more sprinting bouts than centre backs or full backs therefore relying more on the anaerobic energy system. However if there is not a prolonged recovery period or an individual is not properly conditioned they will not subsequently recovery from high intensity bouts of exercise and fatigue will occur (Reilly, 1996). This is evident as Reilly (1996, p.72) documented that the majority of goals conceded during a soccer match occurred in the final ten minutes of play. A popular theory for this occurrence has been found to be mental fatigue or lapses in concentration from defenders (Reilly, 1996, p.72). However this can theory can be scrutinised as research found that the onset of fatigue in intermittent exercise such as soccer is caused by low muscle glycogen stores (Balsom et al., 1999). Acute Cr supplementation and sprint performance in team sports Athletes in team sports such as soccer, rugby, hockey and American football are required to repeatedly reproduce intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise with minimal recovery. Being able to consistently reproduce such bouts at maximal ability (e.g. sprinting, jumping, running backwards) could be the deciding factor in competition to gain that extra edge of an opponent. During high intensity exercise of an intermittent nature the main contributor of energy is PCr (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999, p29). Depletion of PCr stores during high intensity exercise has been found to be a factor which has lead to a decline in athletic performance (Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, 1967). Through the supplementation of Cr, it hypothesised that PCr stores are replenished at a faster rate therefore improving an athletes ability to recover and perform intermittent high intensity bouts of exercise, leading to improved athletic performance (Greenhaff et al, 1993). There have been various studies that have tested this hypothesis by investigating the ergogenic effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance of athletes in team sports (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Izquierdo et al., 2001; Kocak Karli, 2003; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). However the aforementioned studies have contrasting findings with a quantity of studies finding a significant improvement in sprint performance through Cr supplementation (Izquierdo et al., 2001; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). On the contrary other studies have found no significant improvements in sprint performance through acute Cr ingestion (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Kocak Karli, 2003). Ahmun et al., (2005) investigated the ergogenic effect of Cr on sprint performance in male rugby players. For this study a Wingate test protocol was utilised prior and post Cr supplementation. Findings of this study were that there was no significant improvement in maximal cycle sprints through Cr ingestion. However in contrast Izquierdo et al., (2001) found that acute Cr supplementation improved sprint times in male hand ball players. For this study subjects were either assigned Cr or placebo over a 5 day period. The protocol that was utilised consisted of repeated sprint runs that were consistent with sprint distances achieved during handball match play. One issue that could have had a determining factor of the non significant results found by Ahmun et al (2005) is the protocol that was utilised. A Wingate test was utilised to test the sprint performance in rugby players, however the relevance of a Wingate test to measure rugby performance is not sports specific there scrutinising the validity of the results. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) utilised a protocol which successfully replicated distances found in handball match play therefore maintaining validity. Ahmun et al (2005) also failed to incorporate a dietary analysis into the experimental design of the protocol, therefore whether or not Cr stores within the subjects utilised were full cannot be determined, which gives rationale for results showing no significant improvement. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) implemented a dietary examination of subjects that were utilised; this was initiated to determine whether any subjects had ingested Cr or any ergogenic aids prior to baseline testing. This assisted with maintaining validity during research. This can be supported by Romer et al (2001) and Vandebuerie et al (1998) who utilised a protocol containing a dietary analysis and concluded a significant improvement in sprint times within subjects. Cr supplementation and Soccer performance Given the intermittent physical demands of soccer, which requires players to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003) it seems feasible that soccer players would benefit from the supplementation of Cr as an ergogenic aid to improve their overall performance. However research that has investigated the effect on acute Cr supplementation on different variables of soccer performance and predominately sprint performance utilising a soccer simulation protocol is limited (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al 2000; Cox et al 2002). The Aforementioned studies have primarily focused on the effects of Cr supplementation on highly trained athletes that are competing at a high standard of competition. However no previous research has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on amateur soccer players. Being as though Cr monohydrate is an immensely popular ergogenic aid not only among professional athletes but also amateur and recreational athletes, the benefit to amateur athletes needs to recognised. Previous research that has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on soccer players using a soccer simulation protocol is discussed below. Ostojic (2004) examined the effects of acute Cr supplementation (3 x 10g doses for 7 days) on 20 young male soccer players (16.6 Â ± 1.9 years). For the testing procedure a double blind method was used and where subjects were either administered either Cr or placebo. Subjects completed two separate trials prior and post to Cr or placebo. The testing procedure consisted of a number of soccer specific skill tests which included a dribble test, sprint-power test, endurance test and a vertical jump test. Results found that there was a significant improvement in a number of the soccer specific tests; this includes superior improvements in sprint times, vertical jump scores and the dribble test. However no significant improvements were made on endurance performance after the two trials. Although a significant improvement was found in vertical jump performance, it is of concern to future researchers to whether the vertical jump test that was utilised during the design is a soccer specific test. During the test subjects were instructed to keep their trunk as straight as possible whilst keeping their hands on their hips to avoid contribution from the arms which doesnt successfully replicate jumping movements in soccer therefore questioning the validity of the vertical jump test as to whether or not it is a measure of soccer specific performance. The age of the subjects in this research can also be scrutinised. Eichner, King, Myhal, Prentice and Ziegenfuss (1999) confirmed that there was insufficient research to determine the acute and chronic side effects of Cr consumption in athletes under the age of 18 therefore places the subjects which were used in the mentioned study under possible risk. Eichner et al (1999) also highlighted that Cr supplementation in young athletes could have a possible degradation of ethics, by where a win at all costs mentality is fostered and an attitude by where ergogenic aids are necessary to win, which is the wrong message to be installing in young athletes. Likewise Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquerido and Gorostiaga (2000) concluded acute Cr supplementation (20g a day x 6 days) significantly improved sprint performance and found no significant improvement in endurance performance using a soccer simulation protocol. Mujika et al (2000) also documented no increase in vertical jump performance using a similar protocol to Ostojic (2004) which has minimal significance in a soccer simulation study. Mujika et al (2000) tested 19 elite male soccer players who at the time of investigation were highly trained, however only 17 fully completed the testing due to illness or injury. The protocol for this investigation consisted of a circuit of different exercises which consisted of a repeated sprint test (5 and 15m), vertical jump test and an intermittent endurance test. Findings in this study concluded that mean sprint times improved significantly (p This de-training effect is evident for the vertical jump test as no significant improvement between the two trials was found. However if there was a significant de training effect it would have had negative consequences on other testing variables such as sprint performance, this however is not the case as sprint performance significantly improved. Mujika et al (2000) should have took into consideration a possible detraining effect when devising the experimental design as this could have negatively affect the validity of the results. Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke (2002) devised a study which tested Cr supplementation (20g a day) or placebo (20g glucose a day) on 14 elite female soccer players from the Australian institute of sport (AIS) using a soccer simulated protocol. The experimental design consisted of two trials before and after Cr or placebo over a 6 day period. The protocol consisted of fifty five 20m sprints, ten agility runs and a precision ball kicking drill which are separated by recovery walks, jogs and runs. The main findings in this study were that the average 20m sprint time in the Cr group decreased from 3.75 Â ± 0.19 to 3.69 Â ± 0.18s however this decrease in sprint time failed to reach the statistical significance level (p Cox et al (2002) also incorporated a standardised training regime and a controlled diet for the intervention week and also scheduled testing so that it would occur at the same time of day before and after supplementation. In contrast Mujika et al (2000) failed to utilise effective standardised procedures during their experimental design. As previously mentioned Mujika et al (2000) testing procedures took place 3 days after the subjects season had finished therefore training was not standardised due to the fact that subjects had no organised training sessions during the intervention week. Mujika et al (2000) also lacked a familiarisation trial, subjects were only familiarised with the testing procedures prior to arriving for the 1st trial which could substantially affect the results. However although Cox et al (2000) standardised procedures by included a controlled diet for the subjects, it is interesting to note that one of the subjects was a vegetarian, whos Cr content is virtually zero (Greenhaff, 1997). Research has found that vegetarians respond quicker and more effectively to Cr supplementation than those who follow a normal sedentary diet and have natural muscle creatine content (Burke, Chilibeck, Parise, Candow, Mahoney Tamopolsky., 2003; Watt, Garnham Snow, 2004) therefore scrutinising the validity of the results. It may be of future reference to eradicate vegetarians in a experimental design which utilises Cr supplementation due to the diet implications that vegetarians have. Soccer Simulation performance tests To date there has been a number of soccer simulation performance tests which have been utilised to assess and measure different physiological aspects of the game (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Nicholas, Nuttall and Williams, 2000). These protocols have been implemented so that they take into consideration different aspects of soccer performance and try to replicate the exercise patterns that are observed during match play, however due to the spontaneity of the soccer it is difficult to assess every physical or metabolic demand (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000). Researchers have used different protocols when investigating the metabolic and physical demands of soccer, these can documented into laboratory based protocols (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004) and field based protocols (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Nicholas et al 2000). Laboratory based soccer performance protocols Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) devised a laboratory based protocol on a motorised treadmill what represented the work rates that are observed during soccer match play. For the experimental design 7 male university soccer players (24 Â ± 2 years) were used and the testing consisted of three separate testing blocks which were separated by 6 days. The protocol consisted of the different exercise intensities that are utilised during soccer match play; this consisted of walking, jogging, cruising and sprinting. The speeds at which these exercises were performed on the treadmill were consistent with speeds observed by Van Gool, Van Gervan and Boutmans (1988) during a match analysis. Each testing block consisted of two 22.5 minute cycles which consisted of 23 bouts which were followed by a recovery period of 71 seconds. During each bout the duration of each activity was as follows: walking 35 seconds (s), jogging 50.3s, cruising 51.4s and sprinting 10.5s. However in relevance to this research project it should be noted that the duration covered during the sprint bouts of the protocol of Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) which is 10.5s does not successfully coincide with match analysis from several soccer studies that have documented the duration of sprint bouts during soccer match play. Research has found that the average sprint time during soccer match play lasts between on average two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso,1991; Mayhew and Wenger, 1985) therefore concluding in some instances Drust, Reilly and Cables (2000) laboratory based soccer specific protocol can be deemed as in valid as it fails to accurately replicate different soccer performance variables that take place in match play. Another lab based test that was utilised to measure specific variables in soccer performance was devised by Thatcher and Batterham (2004). For this protocol six male professional soccer players were used and the testing consisted of 29 minute exercise bouts on a non motorised treadmill that focused on replicating different speeds, durations, distances and heart rates that occur during soccer match play. Findings from this study suggest that the protocol that was utilised induced a similar physiological load to soccer match play and can be determined as a valid measure of soccer performance. Although lab based soccer specific protocols have been found to replicate some instances of soccer performance it is of consideration of this research project that the limitations and positives of such protocols be noted. The aforementioned lab based failed to perform a re-test procedure to conclude whether their protocols maintained reliability therefore the amount of error in each protocol cannot be determined. Another limitation of lab based testing is that due to tests being performed on treadmills, this limits the subjects to straight-line running only, therefore does not take into consideration lateral movements and agility patterns, which have found to be major characteristics of soccer performance (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992). These unorthodox movement patterns need to be taken into consideration when assessing soccer performance as they increase energy expenditure significantly (Nicholas et al., 2000). One positive aspect of lab based protocols are that procedures such as a ir temperature, equipment utilised and humidity can be easily standardised to remain constant throughout performance testing. Field Tests Nicholas et al (2000) devised the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle test (LIST) to simulate the activity patterns during a game of soccer. The LIST consisted of two separate stages which were known as part A and part B. Part A lasted 70 minutes and consisted of five 15 minute exercise pe Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance Effect of CR Supplementation on Athletic Performance Introduction To succeed in a given sport at any level of competition, athletes must possess specific physiologic, psychologic, and biomechanic traits critical to success in that sport, but they must also receive optimal physical, mental, and biomechanical training to maximise this genetic potential (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). However many athletes believe that the combination of genetic traits and optimal training alone are not sufficient to achieve maximum performance, therefore the use of ergogenic aids has become common to improve sports performance beyond the effect of training (Sundgot-Borgen, Berglund Torstveit, 2003). The use of ergogenic aids will allow athletes to gain that competitive advantage over opponents therefore leading to potential success. According to Williams, Kreider Branch, (1999) ergogenic aids are substances or treatments that are theoretically designed to enhance physical power, mental strength or mechanical edge therefore potentially improving athletic performa nce. Given the various demands of team sports such as Soccer, Rugby and Hockey, which require short intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise which are interspersed by low level exercise, it seems feasible the use of ergogenic aids in such sports may enhance and benefit performance to gain that competitive edge over opponents. One ergogenic aid which has become popular among amateur, professional and recreational athletes over recent years is Creatine Monohydrate (Cr). Creatine is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative which is found in skeletal muscle, but is also a normal dietary constituent with a daily requirement of approximately 2 to 3 grams depending on body size (Ostojic, 2001). The majority of creatine in muscles is stored in the form of phosphocreatine (PCr) which serves as an important contributor to energy metabolism during high intensity exercise (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999). PCr provides the high energy phosphate for adenine diphosphate (ADP) to restore adenine triphosphate (ATP) concentration rapidly via the Cr kinase (CK) reaction (Clarkson, 1996). Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, (1967) demonstrated that depletion of PCr stores within the muscles can lead to a decline in athletic performance during high intensity exercise, so theoretically increasing PCr stores through Cr supplementation would enhance the ability to maintain high intensity exercise over a prolonged period of time, leading to increases in sporting performance. Ahmun (2005) and Hultman, Soderlund, Timmons, Cederblad, Greenhaff, (1996) demonstrated that the average Cr concentration in human muscle can be increased through Cr supplementation over a 7 day period from 20% pre Cr to 50% post Cr. Since PCr is a substrate for the ATP-PCr energy system which is essential for high intensity exercise of 30 seconds or less it seems logical that the supplementation of Cr would be beneficial to exercise tasks of this duration. Therefore the majority of previous research has focused on bouts of anaerobic performance of To date the effect of Cr supplementation on athletic performance has been widely researched. This includes include positive effects of Cr supplementation over a prolonged period of over 4 weeks which is otherwise known as the maintenance phase (Knehans, Bemben, Bemben and Loftiss, 1998; Larson, Hunter, Trowbridge, Turk, Harbin and Torman, 1998). Also demonstrated have been positive effects of Cr supplementation on exercise performance using a shorter ingestion period known as the loading phase (Stout, Echerson, Noonan, Moore, and Cullen, 1999; Volek, Boetes, Bush, Putukian, Sebastianelli and Kraemer, 1997a). This includes improvements in performance variables such as strength, speed and delaying the onset of fatigue (Okudan and Gokbel, 2004; Volek, Kraemer, Bush, Boetes, Incledon, Clark and Lynch 1997b; Kocak Karli , 2003) Team sports consist of repeated bouts of intermittent high intensity exercise therefore consistently relying on the ATP-PCr energy system which if depleted can have a major factor on performance and the outcome of a game (Ostojic, 2004). One such sport which consists of repeated bouts of high intensity exercise is soccer. Soccer players are required to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003). Such high intensity instances could be the deciding factor of a game, for example sprinting back to make a game saving tackle or sprinting past a defender to the ball to make a shot. One high intensity exercise instance which occurs in a soccer match are bouts of sprinting, which are estimated to consist of 8.1% of a 90 minute match and occur approximately every 90 seconds lasting between two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso, 1991). Given the fact that there is considerable support for Cr as an ergogenic aid it would be reasonable to suggest that a soccer players sprint performance would benefit from Cr supplementation. However there is minimal research which has looked into the effects of Cr on sprint performance and variables of soccer match play such as agility running, lateral stepping and running backwards( Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke 2002; Ostojic, 2004; Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquierdo and Gorostiaga, 2000). The aforementioned studies have determined the effects of Cr on elite soccer players, female soccer players and youth soccer players (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al., 2000; Smart et al 1998; Cox et al., 2002). However there is no present research that looks into the effects of acute ( Another aspect to consider upon testing the effects of Cr on sprint performance on amateur soccer players is the protocol to be used. Although there have been many protocols which have been designed to measure and simulate soccer performance, plenty of these have failed to adequately simulate the different movement patterns (sprinting, walking, running backwards, lateral stepping) which are involved in a game of soccer (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Abt, Reaburn, Holmes and Gear, 2003; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004). It seems rational that when assessing components of soccer performance that the protocol that is utilised replicates the different activity patterns and demands of soccer match. If this is not taken into consideration it becomes difficult to determine whether Cr supplementation will have any benefit on soccer performance. Therefore the utilised protocol needs to concisely replicate movement patterns in soccer so that a valid assumption can be made to determine the erogen eity of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in amateur soccer players. Thus the purpose of this study is to conduct an investigation that will determine the effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance in Caucasian male amateur soccer players, using a soccer simulation protocol in an accurate, valid and reliable manner with two trials consisting over a 7 day period. Concluding whether or not acute Cr supplementation can be used as an ergogenic aid to improve a footballers sprint performance, therefore recommending to athletes and coaches alike. Literature Review Creatine Monohydrate: Background Creatine monohydrate is one of the most popular sporting supplements in the world today and is used by high school athletes, the elderly, professional and recreational athletes in the hope of improving physical performance (Bemben and Lamont, 2005). It is the most commonly available Cr supplement and the form primarily used in most research studies. Cr monohydrate comes in a number of forms including powder, tablets, gel, liquid, chewing gum and candy (Williams, Kreider and Branch, 1999, p.43). Greenhaff (1997) indicated powdered Cr, ingested with solution to have a quicker absorption rate at raising muscle Cr concentration than using Cr supplementation of a tablet form. Conversely Vuckovich and Michaelis (1999) reported no significant difference in absorption rate between the two different forms. Dosage methods The supplementation dosages of Cr can be broken down into two different phases, otherwise known as the loading phase and maintenance phase. The loading phase that is commonly used in research consists of ingesting daily, 20-30g of Cr in four equal doses of 5-7g dissolved in around 250ml of fluid interspersed throughout the course of the day (preferably morning, noon, afternoon and evening) for a period of 5 to 7 days (Greenhaff, 1997; Kreider, 1997). Hultman et al (1996) utilised a less intense loading method of 3g/day for 28 days and proposed it to be just as effective as the aforementioned loading protocol. However this method places a longer dependency on subjects to comply with the supplementation program, therefore placing more variables into the reliability of results. Following the loading phase, maintenance dosages are considerably lower. Most research investigating the effects of Cr using the maintenance phase, have utilised dosages of 3 to 15g over a 4 to 10 week period (Bemben et al., 2001; Kreider et al., 1998; Stone et al., 1999; Vandenberghe et al., 1997). It is recommended to consume Cr with warm water, as it facilitates the dissolving of the solution and also aid absorption (Harris et al., 1992). It should also be noted that the ingestion of caffeine during Cr supplementation eradicates its potential ergogenic effect (Vandenberghe et al., 1996; Van Leemputte, Vanstapel Hespel, 1997). Vandenberghe et al (1996) demonstrated that a control group that ingested Cr combined with caffeine to have a lessened ergogenic potential compared to a group that ingested Cr without caffein e during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise. Side effects There is no conclusive scientific evidence to suggest that Cr ingestion has any negative side effects utilising the proposed dosage methods ( Larson et al., 1998; Schroder, Terrados Tramullas, 2005). There is further evidence to support this as Kreider et al (1999) found no negative side effects in athletes who had been ingesting Cr for up to 3 years. Poortmans and Francaux (1999) demonstrated similar findings for athletes for taking Cr for up to 5 years. Only undocumented anecdotal reports have reported any adverse negative side effects through Cr supplementation, this includes gastrointestinal distress, muscle cramping and dehydration (Associated press 1997, 1998). Taking dehydration into consideration such anecdotal research can be scrutinised. Oopik, Timpmann and Medijainen, (1995) demonstrated that Cr supplementation increased body mass, while also reporting increases in total body water. Such findings signify that Cr supplementation may prevent dehydration rather than be a cause, due to the fact it can promote water retention. Cr supplementation has been demonstrated to increase body mass by up to 2kg over an acute period of time (Balsom et al., 1995; Becque et al., 1997). This could be recognised as a negative side effect for athletes that compete in weight control sports, as Cr ingestion may impede their ability to make regulated weight in a forthcoming event. This gives a consensus that athletes in such activities need to be made aware that although Cr can promote gains in strength and power, it can increase body mass. Physiology of Soccer Soccer players are frequently required to produce high power outputs and maintain of repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery (Reilly and Thomas, 2003). This includes intermittent bouts of kicking, tackling, turning, sprinting, changing pace and maintaining balance and control of the ball whilst under pressure from an opponent (Wisloff, Helgerud Hoff, 1998). To gain a scientific perspective of the different physiological demands of soccer performance, match and time motion analysis have been utilised (Bangsbo, 1994). This analysis has allowed researchers to determine the overall workload of players during a 90 minute match by calculating total distance covered, and the pattern of activities performed during a game (e.g. sprinting, cruising, walking etc). Movement patterns of Soccer It is estimated that the total distance covered during a 90 minute soccer match varies from 8.7km to 11.5km ( Bangsbo Lindquist, 1992; Ekblom, 1986; Ohashi et al., (1988); Reilly and Thomas, 1976; 1988; Rampini et al., 2007; Wade, 1962). The large variance in distances covered are due in part to the differing styles of play, levels of competition and skill level of the teams that were utilised (Luxbacher, 1997). Reilly (1994) documented the different activity patterns of elite outfield players from the English top division and other major national leagues in Europe and Japan using different methods of match analysis. Results found that a 90 minute match consists of 24% walking, 36% jogging, 20% cruising sub maximally (striding), 11% sprinting, 7% moving backwards and 2% moving in possession of the ball. The categories of sprinting and cruising are defined as high intensity exercise. In terms of distances covered the ratio of low intensity exercise to high intensity exercise during a soccer match is 7 to 1 denoting that the outlay of energy for soccer is predominately aerobic ( Reilly and Thomas, 1976). However the importance for high intensity bouts during soccer match play should not be underestimated. The timing of such a bout could be the defining factor of a game whether in possession of the ball or without the ball. Although work-rate profiles are relatively consistent for players from game to game it is the high intensity exercise which is the most constant feature (Bangsbo, 1994). The number of sprints reported in a soccer game varies greatly from 17 to 62 (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Mohr, Krustrup Bangsbo, 2003). This variance is largely determined by the positional role of the player. Findings by Reilly (1996) demonstrated that midfielders and strikers completed more sprinting bouts than centre backs or full backs therefore relying more on the anaerobic energy system. However if there is not a prolonged recovery period or an individual is not properly conditioned they will not subsequently recovery from high intensity bouts of exercise and fatigue will occur (Reilly, 1996). This is evident as Reilly (1996, p.72) documented that the majority of goals conceded during a soccer match occurred in the final ten minutes of play. A popular theory for this occurrence has been found to be mental fatigue or lapses in concentration from defenders (Reilly, 1996, p.72). However this can theory can be scrutinised as research found that the onset of fatigue in intermittent exercise such as soccer is caused by low muscle glycogen stores (Balsom et al., 1999). Acute Cr supplementation and sprint performance in team sports Athletes in team sports such as soccer, rugby, hockey and American football are required to repeatedly reproduce intermittent bouts of high intensity exercise with minimal recovery. Being able to consistently reproduce such bouts at maximal ability (e.g. sprinting, jumping, running backwards) could be the deciding factor in competition to gain that extra edge of an opponent. During high intensity exercise of an intermittent nature the main contributor of energy is PCr (Williams, Kreider Branch, 1999, p29). Depletion of PCr stores during high intensity exercise has been found to be a factor which has lead to a decline in athletic performance (Hultman, Bergstrom and McLennan-Anderson, 1967). Through the supplementation of Cr, it hypothesised that PCr stores are replenished at a faster rate therefore improving an athletes ability to recover and perform intermittent high intensity bouts of exercise, leading to improved athletic performance (Greenhaff et al, 1993). There have been various studies that have tested this hypothesis by investigating the ergogenic effect of acute Cr supplementation on sprint performance of athletes in team sports (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Izquierdo et al., 2001; Kocak Karli, 2003; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). However the aforementioned studies have contrasting findings with a quantity of studies finding a significant improvement in sprint performance through Cr supplementation (Izquierdo et al., 2001; Romer et al., 2001; Vandebuerie et al., 1998). On the contrary other studies have found no significant improvements in sprint performance through acute Cr ingestion (Ahmun et al., 2005; Cornish, Chilibeck Burke, 2006; Kocak Karli, 2003). Ahmun et al., (2005) investigated the ergogenic effect of Cr on sprint performance in male rugby players. For this study a Wingate test protocol was utilised prior and post Cr supplementation. Findings of this study were that there was no significant improvement in maximal cycle sprints through Cr ingestion. However in contrast Izquierdo et al., (2001) found that acute Cr supplementation improved sprint times in male hand ball players. For this study subjects were either assigned Cr or placebo over a 5 day period. The protocol that was utilised consisted of repeated sprint runs that were consistent with sprint distances achieved during handball match play. One issue that could have had a determining factor of the non significant results found by Ahmun et al (2005) is the protocol that was utilised. A Wingate test was utilised to test the sprint performance in rugby players, however the relevance of a Wingate test to measure rugby performance is not sports specific there scrutinising the validity of the results. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) utilised a protocol which successfully replicated distances found in handball match play therefore maintaining validity. Ahmun et al (2005) also failed to incorporate a dietary analysis into the experimental design of the protocol, therefore whether or not Cr stores within the subjects utilised were full cannot be determined, which gives rationale for results showing no significant improvement. In contrast Izquierdo et al (2001) implemented a dietary examination of subjects that were utilised; this was initiated to determine whether any subjects had ingested Cr or any ergogenic aids prior to baseline testing. This assisted with maintaining validity during research. This can be supported by Romer et al (2001) and Vandebuerie et al (1998) who utilised a protocol containing a dietary analysis and concluded a significant improvement in sprint times within subjects. Cr supplementation and Soccer performance Given the intermittent physical demands of soccer, which requires players to produce high power outputs and maintain or repeat them with only a few seconds of recovery, (Reilly and Williams, 2003) it seems feasible that soccer players would benefit from the supplementation of Cr as an ergogenic aid to improve their overall performance. However research that has investigated the effect on acute Cr supplementation on different variables of soccer performance and predominately sprint performance utilising a soccer simulation protocol is limited (Ostojic, 2004; Mujika et al 2000; Cox et al 2002). The Aforementioned studies have primarily focused on the effects of Cr supplementation on highly trained athletes that are competing at a high standard of competition. However no previous research has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on amateur soccer players. Being as though Cr monohydrate is an immensely popular ergogenic aid not only among professional athletes but also amateur and recreational athletes, the benefit to amateur athletes needs to recognised. Previous research that has looked into the effects of acute Cr supplementation on soccer players using a soccer simulation protocol is discussed below. Ostojic (2004) examined the effects of acute Cr supplementation (3 x 10g doses for 7 days) on 20 young male soccer players (16.6 Â ± 1.9 years). For the testing procedure a double blind method was used and where subjects were either administered either Cr or placebo. Subjects completed two separate trials prior and post to Cr or placebo. The testing procedure consisted of a number of soccer specific skill tests which included a dribble test, sprint-power test, endurance test and a vertical jump test. Results found that there was a significant improvement in a number of the soccer specific tests; this includes superior improvements in sprint times, vertical jump scores and the dribble test. However no significant improvements were made on endurance performance after the two trials. Although a significant improvement was found in vertical jump performance, it is of concern to future researchers to whether the vertical jump test that was utilised during the design is a soccer specific test. During the test subjects were instructed to keep their trunk as straight as possible whilst keeping their hands on their hips to avoid contribution from the arms which doesnt successfully replicate jumping movements in soccer therefore questioning the validity of the vertical jump test as to whether or not it is a measure of soccer specific performance. The age of the subjects in this research can also be scrutinised. Eichner, King, Myhal, Prentice and Ziegenfuss (1999) confirmed that there was insufficient research to determine the acute and chronic side effects of Cr consumption in athletes under the age of 18 therefore places the subjects which were used in the mentioned study under possible risk. Eichner et al (1999) also highlighted that Cr supplementation in young athletes could have a possible degradation of ethics, by where a win at all costs mentality is fostered and an attitude by where ergogenic aids are necessary to win, which is the wrong message to be installing in young athletes. Likewise Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquerido and Gorostiaga (2000) concluded acute Cr supplementation (20g a day x 6 days) significantly improved sprint performance and found no significant improvement in endurance performance using a soccer simulation protocol. Mujika et al (2000) also documented no increase in vertical jump performance using a similar protocol to Ostojic (2004) which has minimal significance in a soccer simulation study. Mujika et al (2000) tested 19 elite male soccer players who at the time of investigation were highly trained, however only 17 fully completed the testing due to illness or injury. The protocol for this investigation consisted of a circuit of different exercises which consisted of a repeated sprint test (5 and 15m), vertical jump test and an intermittent endurance test. Findings in this study concluded that mean sprint times improved significantly (p This de-training effect is evident for the vertical jump test as no significant improvement between the two trials was found. However if there was a significant de training effect it would have had negative consequences on other testing variables such as sprint performance, this however is not the case as sprint performance significantly improved. Mujika et al (2000) should have took into consideration a possible detraining effect when devising the experimental design as this could have negatively affect the validity of the results. Cox, Mujika, Tumilty and Burke (2002) devised a study which tested Cr supplementation (20g a day) or placebo (20g glucose a day) on 14 elite female soccer players from the Australian institute of sport (AIS) using a soccer simulated protocol. The experimental design consisted of two trials before and after Cr or placebo over a 6 day period. The protocol consisted of fifty five 20m sprints, ten agility runs and a precision ball kicking drill which are separated by recovery walks, jogs and runs. The main findings in this study were that the average 20m sprint time in the Cr group decreased from 3.75 Â ± 0.19 to 3.69 Â ± 0.18s however this decrease in sprint time failed to reach the statistical significance level (p Cox et al (2002) also incorporated a standardised training regime and a controlled diet for the intervention week and also scheduled testing so that it would occur at the same time of day before and after supplementation. In contrast Mujika et al (2000) failed to utilise effective standardised procedures during their experimental design. As previously mentioned Mujika et al (2000) testing procedures took place 3 days after the subjects season had finished therefore training was not standardised due to the fact that subjects had no organised training sessions during the intervention week. Mujika et al (2000) also lacked a familiarisation trial, subjects were only familiarised with the testing procedures prior to arriving for the 1st trial which could substantially affect the results. However although Cox et al (2000) standardised procedures by included a controlled diet for the subjects, it is interesting to note that one of the subjects was a vegetarian, whos Cr content is virtually zero (Greenhaff, 1997). Research has found that vegetarians respond quicker and more effectively to Cr supplementation than those who follow a normal sedentary diet and have natural muscle creatine content (Burke, Chilibeck, Parise, Candow, Mahoney Tamopolsky., 2003; Watt, Garnham Snow, 2004) therefore scrutinising the validity of the results. It may be of future reference to eradicate vegetarians in a experimental design which utilises Cr supplementation due to the diet implications that vegetarians have. Soccer Simulation performance tests To date there has been a number of soccer simulation performance tests which have been utilised to assess and measure different physiological aspects of the game (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Nicholas, Nuttall and Williams, 2000). These protocols have been implemented so that they take into consideration different aspects of soccer performance and try to replicate the exercise patterns that are observed during match play, however due to the spontaneity of the soccer it is difficult to assess every physical or metabolic demand (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000). Researchers have used different protocols when investigating the metabolic and physical demands of soccer, these can documented into laboratory based protocols (Drust, Reilly and Cable, 2000; Thatcher and Batterham, 2004) and field based protocols (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992; Cox, 2002; Nicholas et al 2000). Laboratory based soccer performance protocols Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) devised a laboratory based protocol on a motorised treadmill what represented the work rates that are observed during soccer match play. For the experimental design 7 male university soccer players (24 Â ± 2 years) were used and the testing consisted of three separate testing blocks which were separated by 6 days. The protocol consisted of the different exercise intensities that are utilised during soccer match play; this consisted of walking, jogging, cruising and sprinting. The speeds at which these exercises were performed on the treadmill were consistent with speeds observed by Van Gool, Van Gervan and Boutmans (1988) during a match analysis. Each testing block consisted of two 22.5 minute cycles which consisted of 23 bouts which were followed by a recovery period of 71 seconds. During each bout the duration of each activity was as follows: walking 35 seconds (s), jogging 50.3s, cruising 51.4s and sprinting 10.5s. However in relevance to this research project it should be noted that the duration covered during the sprint bouts of the protocol of Drust, Reilly and Cable (2000) which is 10.5s does not successfully coincide with match analysis from several soccer studies that have documented the duration of sprint bouts during soccer match play. Research has found that the average sprint time during soccer match play lasts between on average two to four seconds in duration (Bangsbo, Norregard Thorso,1991; Mayhew and Wenger, 1985) therefore concluding in some instances Drust, Reilly and Cables (2000) laboratory based soccer specific protocol can be deemed as in valid as it fails to accurately replicate different soccer performance variables that take place in match play. Another lab based test that was utilised to measure specific variables in soccer performance was devised by Thatcher and Batterham (2004). For this protocol six male professional soccer players were used and the testing consisted of 29 minute exercise bouts on a non motorised treadmill that focused on replicating different speeds, durations, distances and heart rates that occur during soccer match play. Findings from this study suggest that the protocol that was utilised induced a similar physiological load to soccer match play and can be determined as a valid measure of soccer performance. Although lab based soccer specific protocols have been found to replicate some instances of soccer performance it is of consideration of this research project that the limitations and positives of such protocols be noted. The aforementioned lab based failed to perform a re-test procedure to conclude whether their protocols maintained reliability therefore the amount of error in each protocol cannot be determined. Another limitation of lab based testing is that due to tests being performed on treadmills, this limits the subjects to straight-line running only, therefore does not take into consideration lateral movements and agility patterns, which have found to be major characteristics of soccer performance (Bangsbo and Lindquist, 1992). These unorthodox movement patterns need to be taken into consideration when assessing soccer performance as they increase energy expenditure significantly (Nicholas et al., 2000). One positive aspect of lab based protocols are that procedures such as a ir temperature, equipment utilised and humidity can be easily standardised to remain constant throughout performance testing. Field Tests Nicholas et al (2000) devised the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle test (LIST) to simulate the activity patterns during a game of soccer. The LIST consisted of two separate stages which were known as part A and part B. Part A lasted 70 minutes and consisted of five 15 minute exercise pe

A Life In The Day Of Me :: Papers

A Life In The Day Of Me My mother knocks. The door opens. Bright light blasts into my consciousness; I cannot see. I leap out of bed to reduce the longing to return and the cold hits me like a slap. As you can probably tell, I am not a morning person - I never have been. I have learnt to hate them over the years. We have never had heating on until Mid-November because my parents insist that they can't afford to heat the whole house. This makes mornings a nightmare! Once I'm up, I can just about manage. I dress and eat breakfast to music. Music is a significant thing for me. My parents used to be in a band together and my mother is still trying to get a record-deal. She always likes to think of herself as a young and trendy mum. She is really into the house and garage music scene, but meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I'm a different story. Everyone in my family has opposite views on music. My mother and one of my little sisters, Heidi, like pop and garage music. My father, my youngest sister, and I like rock and Heavy Metal. This causes terrible arguments over what to listen to in the car or whilst eating dinner. However, the one band that we all agree on is Nirvana. I am a massive fan of Nirvana and have flags and posters of them all over my room. This is why I listen to Nirvana in the mornings - because nobody minds. By the time I get to school, I am (almost) fully awake. I have to walk to the station and get the train to school so I arrive at school feeling like I've been up for ages. Once I get my brain in gear it doesn't slow down. I constantly think - about everything! I occasionally come out with a random comment, completely off the subject because I've been thinking about it while everyone else is speaking. People have therefore got the impression that I'm slightly mindless because I never know what people are talking about.

Psychological and Presentational Realism in Moll Flanders by Daniel Def

Psychological and Presentational Realism in Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe The Eighteenth-century literature is popular for its peculiar style of writing that gives the readers an insider’s view in the novel. By combining the two aspects such as Psychological and Presentational Realism, authors have created works of pure masterpiece such as Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe. Defoe illustrates Moll, the protagonist’s psyche by writing the narrative in the first person to imply it as an autobiography. This allows psychological realism to work at its finest since the readers can feel a personal relationship to the character. The two important instances that occur with this type of realism are when Moll realizes that she is married to her own brother and her meeting with Humphrey, her son. In addition, Defoe also uses Presentational Realism to describe Moll’s initial career as thief with her first episode at the apothecary’s shop and later stealing a gold necklace from a child. The manner in which the setting is described gives the reade rs a sense of feeling of being there and at the same time experiencing her escape from the scene. Amongst Moll’s several relationships, she is married to a plantation owner, who owns property and has mother and a sister in America. The couple decides to move to Virginia to be with the family (Defoe 77). Moll’s describes that she lives in marital bliss and also enjoys the company of her mother-in-law. She exclaims â€Å"†¦I thought of myself the happiest creature alive†¦Ã¢â‚¬  until her world is shattered as she portrays herself being â€Å"†¦most uncomfortable in the world† (78). As she is listening to the story of her mother-in-law being a transported felon to Virginia from Newgate prison in London and sudden... ...hough she may not have kept in touch with her son. She is overjoyed by meeting him, which gives the reader a sense of hope that the story will end on a positive note. On the other hand, presentational realism is shown through Moll’s darker side when she turns into a thief to support herself and live lavishly. Her description of her deeds and exact account of what she acquires amazes the readers. The reader can connect to her by being a thief and at the same time passing moral judgments upon her. Some may congratulate her on being slick enough to steal from an apothecary shop while others may criticize her for robbing a little innocent child. Regardless of various opinions, Defoe’s narrative style involves the reader in the story, which makes it interesting to read. Works Cited Defoe, Daniel. Moll Flanders. New York: Signet Classic Penguin Books USA Inc, 1996.

Educational Systems Essay

Educational Laws| Twelve years of primary and secondary education prior to attending university.| * All children in the UK of compulsory school age must receive a full time education. * Classes from September to July * Long vacation from 1 July to 30 September * Languages of instruction.| * Academic year runs from March to December. * Primary: 4 or 6 hours * Holydays: two weeks in July| Organization of education at all levels| * Pre- primary education: from 3 to 6. Kinder garden – Child care center – Nursery level * Primary school (elementary) from 6 years old to 13/14. Private or state schools, * Secondary school (highschool): from 13/14 to 16/18Highschool diploma (basic or honour)GED (gral. educ. diploma) test for immigrants or international students to certificate de level.IB examination in different subjects.AP course in order to enter university. * Higher education/university education Undergraduate 1- Associate degree (AS/AA): 2 years. â€Å"General†. Semi- skilled job. Administrative.Bachelor’s degree (BA/BS): 4 years aprox.Graduate 2- Master’s degree (MS/MA): 2 or 3 years.Doctorate degree (PhD): university teachers, doctors, lawyers, scientific. You can choose the subjects and you obtain credits. That is why bachelor’s is more general.Universities divided in schools/orientation. | * Nursery school 1 – 4/5 * Primary school: Infant (4 – 7) Junior (7 – 11) * Secondary school: * Senior * College/ sixth form GCSE: General Crtificate of Secondary Education. One year. Pupils can leave secondary schooling.One more year: AS-Levels (higher level of secondary)A-level (required for university entrance)Diploma: skills and and knowledge needed for work. (like the associated)VOSE * Higher education * Undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) * Graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as quaternary education). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as vocational education.There is a three-level hierarchy of degrees (Bachelor, Master, Doctor) A graduate student is an individual who has completed a bachelor’s degree (B.A., B.S.) and is pursuing further higher education, with the goal of achieving a master’s degree (M.A., M.S.) or doctorate In the United States, Graduate education can also refer to those pursuing a post-master’s Educational Specialist degree or post-master’s Certificate of Advanced Study (law school or business school.)| * Pre-primary level – kinder garden (two stages 4 and 5 obligatory) * Primary level – EPB (elementary). From 6 to 11 (it depends on the province) * Secondary level: from 12 to 17 years old. 1) ESB/CBU2) Polimodal/ CE/ ESO * Higher education: private/ national universities or institutions. | In college ≠  in university College: smaller Focus on undergraduate degrees There are a lot of variations especially in qualification. Each state has the possibility of regulate. University: divided into colleges but they are not specialized in one area ancient universities (Oxford/Cambridge). Each school has an orientation. Many courses of study in the same college. (â€Å"autà ³nomos†) OPEN UNIVERSITY: there are some degrees very prestigious. There is a curriculum: pass one subject in order to go on advancing in your program of studies. Diploma in higher education/associated: tecnicatura Undergraduate: after school Higher education: tertiary university undergraduate graduate and postgraduate as synonyms SLA: school leaving age

Advantages and Disadvantages of Starting Up a Business

Advantages of Starting up a Business Advantages of starting your own small or medium business can include: Being your own Boss – You can make your own decisions, keep your own time and not have to answer to â€Å"The Boss† Hard Work & Know How – If you are a hard worker and / or have immense industry know how, you may want to benefit from the long hours you do or the knowledge that you have acquired over time. Financial Independence – One day, you may realize your dream of financial independence.Creative Freedom – No more restrictions, you can do what you like and have the freedom to work, design, create, build what you think is best – your way! Goodwill – You don't have to pay for it, you get to build it. Location, Premises, Building Fit out – You get to choose it all. Staff – You not lumped with staff you don't want. You hire and train from scratch – Your way. No Bad Name – A fresh business, a fresh start. Your name has no bad history with suppliers or customers. If you buy a business, you may find some people just won't deal with the business because of past dealings. Business Image – You create the business image you want.Your way. Disadvantages of starting your own small or medium business can include: Cash Flow – Your business may not have a positive cash flow for two years – how are you going to cover that? Competitors – You may invest all this time, money and effort into your business and a large competitor targets your customers and offers them a similar product / service at below your cost – until your business has failed. Homework – Have you done it? You may do it all and then find when you are all set up, that something from left field becomes apparent and significantly alters the outlook of your business.History – If you buy a business, you are buying something. You are buying history of the business trading, you have staff in place, equipment and premises in place, customers ringing in with orders on your first Monday morning. If you start a business, you have no history. Everything must be generated from scratch. Married to the Business – This is a common phrase from small business owners. It basically means, your hours of work and level of commitment is such that you cannot take a holiday, your business is always with you (day, nights ; weekends) and basically your neck is on the line.You can't just throw the keys back and give it all away if it gets too hard! Suppliers – Suppliers may not extend you credit as your business has no history, so you may have to pay upfront for your goods, and you may not collect money from your customers for those goods for 90 – 120 days. This is very detrimental to cash flow. Can you sustain this? Have you factored it into your budget? Family – Is your family situation such that you can undertake this huge venture of starting a small busine ss from scratch? It often means a huge sacrifice with no guarantee of reward. Advantages and Disadvantages of Starting Up a Business Advantages of Starting up a Business Advantages of starting your own small or medium business can include: Being your own Boss – You can make your own decisions, keep your own time and not have to answer to â€Å"The Boss† Hard Work & Know How – If you are a hard worker and / or have immense industry know how, you may want to benefit from the long hours you do or the knowledge that you have acquired over time. Financial Independence – One day, you may realize your dream of financial independence.Creative Freedom – No more restrictions, you can do what you like and have the freedom to work, design, create, build what you think is best – your way! Goodwill – You don't have to pay for it, you get to build it. Location, Premises, Building Fit out – You get to choose it all. Staff – You not lumped with staff you don't want. You hire and train from scratch – Your way. No Bad Name – A fresh business, a fresh start. Your name has no bad history with suppliers or customers. If you buy a business, you may find some people just won't deal with the business because of past dealings. Business Image – You create the business image you want.Your way. Disadvantages of starting your own small or medium business can include: Cash Flow – Your business may not have a positive cash flow for two years – how are you going to cover that? Competitors – You may invest all this time, money and effort into your business and a large competitor targets your customers and offers them a similar product / service at below your cost – until your business has failed. Homework – Have you done it? You may do it all and then find when you are all set up, that something from left field becomes apparent and significantly alters the outlook of your business.History – If you buy a business, you are buying something. You are buying history of the business trading, you have staff in place, equipment and premises in place, customers ringing in with orders on your first Monday morning. If you start a business, you have no history. Everything must be generated from scratch. Married to the Business – This is a common phrase from small business owners. It basically means, your hours of work and level of commitment is such that you cannot take a holiday, your business is always with you (day, nights ; weekends) and basically your neck is on the line.You can't just throw the keys back and give it all away if it gets too hard! Suppliers – Suppliers may not extend you credit as your business has no history, so you may have to pay upfront for your goods, and you may not collect money from your customers for those goods for 90 – 120 days. This is very detrimental to cash flow. Can you sustain this? Have you factored it into your budget? Family – Is your family situation such that you can undertake this huge venture of starting a small busine ss from scratch? It often means a huge sacrifice with no guarantee of reward.

General Information and Cure for Alzheimer’s Disease

This research paper in general provides various details about the Alzheimer’s disease. The various symptoms and the various methods used to detect this disease. It also provides in general information about the methods that are used to cure the disease. Some of the natural techniques used to cure it. The various social and physiological issue faced by people suffering from this disease. Introduction Alzheimer's disease is an irreversible brain disorder which has no cure.This disease affects its victims slowly over a period of time and leaves them with no or very little control of their mind. Some of the affects of Alzheimer's disease are partial or total memory loss, they are not in control of their mind to make judgments, it leads to personality changes in the affected person and many a times they loose their control over their language skills. Alzheimer’s disease is one of the disease that affect its patients over a long span of time and with out a warning.The symptom s of Alzheimer’s disease are very similar to that of old age and are many times misinterpreted as old age and by the time people realize the actual problem it is too late. Some of the most common and early signs of Alzheimer’s disease is the loss of short term memory and this is one of the ignored by many and slowly and steadily becomes worse over a period of time. There are a number of organizations that have been started to find a cure for the disease and also to help the victims cope with the stigma faced by them in the general public.One of the major organizations started to help this cause is the Alzheimer's Disease Research (ADR) which was established way back in 1985 to provide funds to organizations performing research on Alzheimer's disease and also to educate the general public about the disease and raise awareness about the same. Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer's disease was first detected by a German physiotherapist way back in 1901 when a patient was brought to him by her husband as he was not able to take care of her due to her ever diminishing mental health.He noticed that the patient was suffering from short term memory loss and cloud not remember a thing. He continued research on these symptoms for the next 5 years and presented the same at the 37th Assembly of Southwest German Psychiatrists. The name Alzheimer's disease became popular after it was written about by Emil Kraepelin in his book called â€Å"Textbook for Students and Doctors†. However in the whole 20th century this disease was assumed to affect only the people who were of age 60 and above.However in early 1980s it was realized that this disease could affect anyone in any age group and the name Alzheimer's disease was used to refer to all the patients who were contacted with this disease (Alzheimer’s Research Foundation). Alzheimer's disease stops the normal functioning of the brains and reduces its capabilities to perform normal everyday activities . The disease grows over a span of time and the affected persons control over his brain lessens as time passes. Alzheimer's disease is an irreversible disease which has no found cure.The person who is contacted with this has no or very little control his brain and is not able to think and understand things correctly. The patient many have short term memory loss and may forget his name and many a times it has been noted that the patient will walk away from home and wander around not knowing what is to be done. The first sign of Alzheimer's disease is the loss of short term memory. This is a sign which is ignored by many as a sign of old age and by the time one realizes the issue it is too late.Over a span of time the person looses his thinking abilities and finally it leads to a change in the personality of the person suffering from Alzheimer's disease. In the last stage the person become fully dependent on others for his day to day activity and has to be kept under supervision at al l times. The person may get infected by an infection which may eventually lead to his death. It is said that usually people over the age of 65 are contracted with this disease however one can come in contact with Alzheimer's disease at any age.However age is the key factor for people who suffer from this disease as it ahs been noted that the chances of a person having this disease increase as the person grows older (Wikipedia). Some of the common symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are as follows; Short term Memory loss (Cohen): There are a number of symptoms that will be noticed in a person who is suffering Alzheimer's disease, however the most common and one of the symptoms that can be noticed in all the patients is the loss of short term memory.All the patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease loose there short term memory and are known to become forgetful. Short term memory loss is considered to be one of the key symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However many time patients avoid te lling this fact to people around them and are know to smartly hide this issue. This is done by them to avoid being made fun by their family members and friends. Confusion and Wandering: Memory loss is followed by problems related to confusion where the affected person finds it difficult to perform even their everyday work properly.They find it difficult to perform some easy everyday work like cooking, eating etc very difficult to do. It becomes very difficlut for them to remember the name of people and places. It worsens to such an extent that they forget the names of their own children and grandchildren. This further worsens and the patient looses track of direction and finds it difficult to find his way around the house and many a times once he goes away from the house, does not know the way back home and is then referred to as a wanderer.In the beinging the affected person will not realize the problem and as time passes things will worsen and the person will find it very difficul t to find his way back home. Personal Care: The personal hygiene of the person suffering from Alzheimer's disease will deteriorate over the span of time. A person who would really take care of his hygiene will start ignoring it. The person will not want to have bath or brush his hair everyday, will forget to brush their teeth etc.Many times the person will start having a weird sense of dressing and will start wearing inappropriate dressing. In this stage a personal care taker will be needed to take care of the everyday work of the person and the patient will require constant help in doing their everyday activities. Mood Swings: A patient suffering from Alzheimer's disease will have massive mood swings and the person will behave differently on a day to day basis. There will also be sudden and quick changes in the person; they might start laughing when they would have been crying only a minute back.They might even start having fights and arguments with themselves or a non living objec t like the floor or even the television. They will start fighting with anyone around and will always be restless. They might even start talking to themselves and mumbling. Sundowner Syndrome: During the stage when the person starts having mood swings, he also starts suffering from the Sundowner Syndrome where the sunset has a very bad affect on the patients brain and the person becomes every restless and becomes over active during the night and early morning hours (Richter & Richter).Diagnosis (Alzheimer's Disease): The diagnosis of a person Alzheimer's Disease is a long and lengthy process and is based on the observations made by the physician over a period of time. A series of tests to check the memory of the person are done over a period of weeks or months to asses the condition. The physician performs number of other tests too to rule out any other disease that the person might be facing. This is done only to check for the symptoms of other diseases, as no clinical test has been proven to diagnose Alzheimer's Disease completely.All the diagnosis is based on the experience and knowledge of a physician who specializes in memory related disorders. The only guaranteed way to detect the Alzheimer's Disease is to do a micro scopic examination of the tissues of the brain. Causes of Alzheimer's Disease (Cohen): There are a number for theories have been formed about the causes that lead to Alzheimer's Disease, many of these have been accepted universally and on some of the other theories research is still on.Some of the causes of Alzheimer's disease are as follow (Richter & Richter)s: Bacterial Infection: Bacterial infection is considered to be one of the major causes of Alzheimer's Disease. Chlamydia Pneumoniae is a virus that usually affect the lungs, nose and sinusus of the infected, however it has been noted that this virus is very prominentnt in the brains of people suffering from Alzheimer's Disease. In a research doen recently seventeen out of ninteen patien ts suffering from Alzheimer's Disease had the virus in their brains.Brain Damage or Head Injury: The chances of a person having Alzheimer's Disease become very high after a person has an head injury. The trauma that the brain has when a person has a head injury leaves traces of amyloid which is know to cause Alzheimer's Disease. Age Factor: Another major factor that increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease is the age of the person. It is said that the chances of Alzheimer's disease occurring increases after the age of 65 and every 5 years after that the risk increases by about 5 percent.Genetic Cause: It has not been scientifically proven that Alzheimer's Disease is a genetic disorder and people who have family memebers suffering from the diesease have a high risk of having the disease. However it has also been proven that genetic factors only increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease. Environmental Causes: There is also an argument about how high levels of aluminum in the environme nt increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease, however there is not scientific proof of this actually being a cause.Some of the steps to be taken to reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease are as follows; Intellectual Stimulation: One of good ways to reduce the risks of Alzheimer's disease is by doing metal exercise and doing things that requires one to work their brain. This helps in keeping the brain healthy and in good shape. Regular exercise: Another good way to reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease is by doing regular physical exercise. This helps reduces the amount of cholesterol in the body and also reduces the fat. This reduces the risk of Alzheimer's disease.Healthy Diet: The risk of Alzheimer's disease can be reduced by having food that is rich in vitamins and proteins. Also reducing the intake of fat also helps in reducing the risk of Alzheimer's disease. Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Reducing the levels of cholesterol in the blood also helps in reducing the chances of a pe rson having the disease. Many clinical trails are also on to check the risk factor. There is another study that has found that compounds found in marijuana known as cannabinoids helps in preventing Alzheimer's disease.However they have not been able to prove it for a fact or replicate the same. Some of the important facts about Alzheimer's disease are as follows (Alzheimer’s Research Foundation); 1. Over a 100 billion dollars are spent a year to do research and to find a cure for the disease. 2. Around 24 million people around the world suffer from Alzheimer's disease. 3. Around 5 million Americans are suffering from Alzheimer's disease. 4. It is estimated that over 81 million people around the world will be suffering from Alzheimer's disease by 2020.Conclusion It can be clearly understood the gravity of the disease and the problems faced by a person suffering from the disease. It is very important for a person to lead a healthy life and be careful if they have Alzheimer's di sease in their family as there are chances that they may have the disease themselves. It is also necessary that one does not ignore the symptoms of short term memory loss as this can be the beginning of the disease and if found at the right stage it is possible to slow down the process of it damaging your brain.Research is on to find out a cure for the disease and reduce the risks the disease. References Alzheimer’s Research Foundation. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. alzinfo. org/alzheimers-disease-information. asp? mtc=google&kwd=alzheimer's_disease&gclid=CIuZgcqL34sCFQIFEAodcyncXg Alzheimer's Disease. (n. d. ). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Alzheimer's_disease#History Cohen, E. Alzheimer's Disease. Richter, W. R. , & Richter, B. Z. Alzheimer's Disease.